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C44$ 

£31 


moDERn 

PORTRAITURE 


by 

Stanley R. Jordan 


CAMERA CRAFT PUBLISHING COMPANY 
425 Bush Street • San Francisco • California 


TT?S7S 

Jl 


Copyright 1938 

Camera Craft Publishing Company 
San Francisco 


First Edition 



©ciA 


Printed in the United States of America 
by The Mercury Press, San Francisco 


124516 


JAN 10 1939 


CONTENTS 


Foreword . 4 

Chapter I The Studio .... 6 

II Equipment .. 17 

III Principles of Lighting. 40 

IV Exposure and Development.. 70 

V Preparation for a Portrait.. 85 

VI Make-Up . . 90 

VII Posing . 114 

VIII Portraits of Women. 138 

IX Portraits of Men. 150 

X Portraits of Children- 164 

XI Hollywood Portraits 175 

XII Outdoor Portraits 131 

XIII Home Portraiture . 137 

XIV Portrait Photography as a Business 196 

t. •> 


3 

















FOREWORD 


There is a widespread and growing interest in photography today 
and hundreds of thousands of men and women have selected it as a 
hobby. Many amateurs produce photographs which, in artistic 
quality, compare favorably and often excel those made by profes¬ 
sional photographers. It is from this group that the professional pho¬ 
tographers of the future will be recruited. I cannot emphasize too 
strongly that this hook, although written by a professional photogra¬ 
pher, is intended for this new generation of photographers both 
amateur and professional. Anyone with a knowledge of the elemen¬ 
tary principles of photography can understand and apply the meth¬ 
ods described. Highly technical terms have been avoided. Their use 
may imply that a writer’s mind is a veritable storehouse of scientific 
facts, but such stuff is dull reading and probably adds very little to 
the average man’s progress in photography. 

No attempt has been made to exhaust every ramification of the 
subject nor have I dealt with every camera, lens, or other type of 
equipment. In many instances, for example in connection with light¬ 
ing equipment, I have shown what, in my opinion, is the best avail¬ 
able today. Some of the units are, of course, more costly than the 
beginner requires, but with the great variety of equipment obtainable 
it is easy to select satisfactory substitutes. It would, obviously, be 
unfair to the advanced amateur and the professional to suggest even 
by the illustrations the use of makeshift equipment. The fact that 
most of the lighting units shown are in daily use in the motion picture 
industry indicates qualities which the photographer would be wise 
to consider before investing money in equipment. 

The methods described in this book are sound and practical and 
are in constant use in my studio. 


4 


The psychological aspects of portrait photography have interested 
me for years, and I have devoted considerable space to the subject. 
I am not a professional psychologist and my observations are only 
intended as a basis for profitable research by others. 

I don’t believe any competent authority will dispute the statement 
that portrait photography has not kept pace with the progress of 
photography generally, although the facilities which have made the 
remarkable results obtained by commercial photographers possible 
are also available to portrait studios. 

I am convinced that the opportunities in portrait photography 
are greater today than ever before. Many young men, attracted by 
reports of large fees paid for advertising photographs, are inclined 
to overlook the possibilities in portraiture. 

There are hundreds, perhaps thousands, of cities and towns in the 
United States where there is either no photographer at all or at least 
not a first rate studio. There are, in my opinion, opportunities for at 
least 10,000 amateurs in this country to become professional portrait 
photographers. 


Stanley R. Jordan 


San Francisco, California 
November, 1938 


5 


CHAPTER ONE 


The Studio 


Preliminary Considerations 

There are almost as many kinds of studios in the world as there 
are photographers, but few are fortunate enough to occupy premises 
constructed especially for photographic purposes. In most cases it 
is necessary for the photographer to adjust himself to the available 
space in the building which he occupies. The landlord whose premises 
are leased to a photographer can count himself fortunate if he escapes 
the necessity of tearing out partitions and changing the electrical 
wiring and plumbing. 

An attempt to provide a layout for the ideal studio would render 
the plans useless for the majority because the requirements of each 
photographer are different. 

Many of the features suggested for the modern studio are the 
result of a careful study of the psychological aspects of portraiture. 
There is an immense field here and very little has been written on 
the subject. It is a fundamental truth with which I think everyone 
will agree, that it is the psychological quality of a photograph that 
determines whether it is a portrait or a mere record of the subject. 
The psychological quality of a portrait has to do with the character of 
the subject rather than his or her height, weight or physical appear¬ 
ance. Most of us have heard the “spiritual” qualities of portraits by 
the old masters discussed; what is actually meant is the pyschological 


6 


character of the subject of the portrait as distinguished from the tech¬ 
nical qualities of the painting or drawing. When people look at a 
photograph and comment upon the “expression” of the subject, what 
they actually mean is its psychological quality. 

Of the value of portraiture to the biographer and historian, 
Carlyle, in a letter written in 1854, says, “In all my poor historical 
investigations it is one of the most primary wants to procure a bodily 
likeness of the personage inquired after; a good portrait , if such 
exists; failing that, even an indifferent, if sincere one; in short any 
representation, made by a faithful human creature, of that face and 
figure which he saw with his eyes and which I can never see with mine. 
Often I have found the portrait superior in real instruction to half a 
dozen written biographies, or rather, I have found the portrait was 
as a small lighted candle , by which the biographies could for the first 
time he read , and some human interpretation he made of them.” 

The first impression of the subject* upon entering the studio is 
only exceeded in importance by his or her mental attitude while 
facing the camera. Some subjects are actually frightened while in a 
studio. Everything possible should be done to put them at their ease 
immediately. 

The one man studio has a decided advantage because it is possible 
to maintain an unhurried atmosphere. Further, the personal atten¬ 
tion of the photographer to every detail is flattering to the subject, 
lends an air of importance to the sitting and creates the impression 
that the resulting photograph will be unique, an individual creation 
—not just a machine product. 

I am a firm believer in the psychological value of privacy, not 
only in the camera room but in the reception room also. Having a 
portrait made is an unusual occurrence in the lives of most people, 
and it is much too personal to share with a room full of strangers. 

The photographer should meet the subject in the reception room, 
never in the camera room. An informal chat is well worth the time 
required, for it provides an opportunity to study the personality of 

*1 use the term “subject” instead of “model” because to me, “model” implies one who poses for 
artists and photographers for compensation. 


7 



the subject under the most favorable circumstances. The preliminary 
interview should disclose the purpose of the photograph; everyone 
who has a portrait made has a reason for it. No studio can be success¬ 
ful without satisfied customers, and it is essential that portraits serve 
the purpose for which they are intended. By that I mean the photog¬ 
rapher should find out whether the picture is intended for a gift to 
the members of the subject’s family, and as much as possible about 
the type of people to whom it is likely to be presented. 

Some people are reluctant about discussing the character of the 
intended recipient of a portrait, but the desired information can 
usually be obtained by asking a few discreet questions. Suppose, for 
example, that a woman desired a portrait of herself for her husband. 
If, in the course of the interview, she reveals the fact that he is 
opposed to the use of lipstick, that he will not permit her to wear a 
red dress and that he is not interested in art, music, or literature, 
there is no choice hut to make a conservative portrait. Photographs 
are always subjected to the scrutiny of relatives and friends, and a 
portrait that meets with the approval of both the subject and a 
majority of the self-appointed critics can be considered a success. 

Before going further, I want to explain that by the word “por¬ 
trait” I mean a characteristic likeness of the subject, honest in techni¬ 
cal and artistic craftsmanship. I do not intend, anywhere in this 
book, to distinguish between amateur and professional photogra¬ 
phers, because the methods I intend to describe can be used with 
equal facility by either. I believe that a portrait can he equally good 
whether it is made purely for artistic purposes or for profit. 

Studio Floor Plans 

The reader will note, by referring to the floor plan shown in 
Figure 1, that there are three general divisions or departments in the 
studio. Entering the studio from the elevator, the reception room, 
sales room and office are located so that visitors who have business 
other than sitting for a portrait do not disturb the operations in the 
camera room or dark roms. The reception room is a comfortable room 
in which to wait if the camera room is temporarily in use. A radio, 
magazines and cigarettes are provided. 


8 


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Figure 1 


It will also be noted that the camera make-up and dressing rooms 
are located as a unit, immediately adjoining the reception room. The 
darkroom and finishing room is located in the rear of the camera and 
dressing rooms so that, in the normal operation of the studio, em¬ 
ployees will not be disturbed by the public entering and leaving the 
premises. 

A studio with two camera rooms could easily use this basic idea 
by having the entrance hall between the two camera rooms. If a 
studio requires two or more camera rooms, however, I believe a 
reception room, even if it be small, should be provided for each 
camera room. The dressing room may be built within the walls of the 
camera room—a reception room, never! 

I am thoroughly aware of the fact that many of the suggestions 
I have made and some of those to follow will find little favor with a 
certain class of photographers. I refer, of course, to those who oper¬ 
ate rackets and price cutting schemes. The subject gets about as much 
personal attention in a studio of that kind as an automobile gets on 
a volume production assembly line. Few of the photographs pro¬ 
duced in such places are worthy of the word “portrait.” From a mere 
money grabbing point of view, they are sometimes temporarily suc- 


9 























cessful. They have little if any good will in the community and to 
continue in business they depend for customers upon the source of 
supply which the late Barnuin had in mind when he coined his 
famous phrase “a sucker horn every minute.” 

It is a good idea for the photographer to imagine himself entering 
the studio in the place of his subject. To create a favorable first im¬ 
pression, the entrance to the studio should be warm and well lighted. 
Light and warmth inspire confidence; darkness and cold are the allies 
of fear and suspicion. 

The Reception Room 

The reception room should he designed to serve a dual purpose. 
Many subjects are accompanied by relatives or friends and the recep¬ 
tion room should also be a comfortable waiting room. Visitors can be 
a profitable source of business for the studio, and they should be 
shown every courtesy. In my reception room, there is a radio, books, 
the current copies of the better magazines (for both men and women) 
and the popular brands of cigarettes. At least one large divan and 
enough comfortable chairs should he provided to seat all visitors. 
Ash trays and reading lamps are, of course, essential. 


10 








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The walls of the reception room offer an excellent opportunity to 
familiarize the public with the photographer’s work. (Figure 2.) 
There are forty photographs under glass on the walls of my studio. 
The 8'xlO'' prints are displayed on 14"xl8" mounts; ll"xl4" prints 
on 16"x20" and 16"x20" prints on 24"x30" mounts. New pictures 
should replace old ones as frequently as possible to maintain the 
interest of regular visitors to the studio. Several years ago, I had a 
large number of standard size frames and the studio display consisted 
entirely of framed pictures. I soon found, however, that the work of 
putting a new print in a frame was such a task that I did not change 
them often enough. 

Every print should bear the signature of its maker. Displaying 
pictures made by other photographers may be a laudable enterprise, 
but it leads to complications. Some busy-body is sure to come along 
and ask, “Are all of these photographs yours?” And, if there is one 
print made by another photographer, the curious one will inspect 
the signature on every print in the studio. It’s the old story of a “Wet 
Paint” sign providing an irresistible attraction to the fingers of 
passers-by. 

There is a very sound and practical reason why a photographer 
should display only his own pictures. If photographs made by others 
are shown, some may wonder whether or not the better pictures in the 


11 














room were made by the photographer or some other person. 

Glass and print are held in place by an aluminum clip screwed 
to the wall. (Figure 3.) This clip is the product of my own work shop 
and has resulted in the saving of considerable time and annoyance. 
Most of the prints displayed are portraits, hut there is a liberal num¬ 
ber of salon prints which are of general interest to the public. 

The Dressing Room 

The dressing room should he well-lighted, warm and comfortable. 
It should be a room , not just a space behind a screen or curtain, and 
it should not be smaller than six by eight feet. The application of 
cosmetics requires a first grade mirror, and a special arrangement of 
lights which will he described in connection with “Make-up.” There 
should be a generous number of clothing hangers and hooks to hang 
them on. 

The Camera Room 

In the early days of photography, daylight usually from a skylight 
in the north slope of a roof furnished the light source for portraits. 
Backgrounds and furnishings were, for this reason, of the same 
general style in every studio. Artificial light changed all of this, the 
flexibility of modern equipment making a wide variety of effects 
available to every studio. Many large studios have several camera 
rooms some of which have fireplaces, staircases and other architec¬ 
tural features designed for wedding and group pictures. Some 
authorities suggest that the camera room should be furnished as 
much like a home as possible so that the subject can relax during the 
making of a portrait. I am in complete accord with the purpose of 
the plan, hut I see very little merit in the method. In the first place, 
the camera and lens cannot be disguised and the lights cannot he 
concealed. I am inclined to place the responsibility for failure to put 
the subject at ease upon the photographer or his assistants. The well 
equipped camera room should, however, he equipped with comfort¬ 
able furniture that will harmonize with the decorative scheme of the 
studio. 

It is impossible to specify the exact size of the camera room, hut 
if standing figures are to he photographed, it should not be less than 


12 


twenty-five feet. And if lenses with a focal length of more than 14 or 
15 inches are to he used, the room will have to he longer in propor¬ 
tion. There is a formula hy which the focal length of a lens suitable 
for use in a room of known dimensions can he determined. The for¬ 
mula is given below, with the suggestion that those who may have 
occasion to use it keep this fact in mind. A good lens will last a life 
time, whereas studio quarters are often temporary, so the limitations 
of a particular camera room should not be the deciding factor in the 
selection of focal length. 

Space must be provided at one end of the room for background 
posing furniture, and other accessories. At the opposite end, there 
must be enough space for the camera and room to get behind it with¬ 
out bumping into the wall. Allowing five feet behind the subject and 
five feet behind the camera leaves fifteen feet between subject and 
camera in a room twenty-five feet long. 

Having determined the actual floor space available, it is now 
necessary to determine the desired image size on the negative. This, 
of course, must be based on full figure portraits and for 5x7 film a 5 
inch image is about the maximum. A man 70 inches in height reduced 
on the ground glass to a 5 inch image represents a reduction of 70 
5 = 14; therefore, 14 is the reduction ratio. 

The rule is that the working distance, divided by the reduction 
ratio plus 1, equals the focal length of the lens to use. In the ex¬ 
ample given, the working distance or D, is 15 feet or 180 inches. The 
reduction ratio, R, plus 1 is 14 + 1, or 15. Dividing 180 by 15 = 12, 
which is F, the focal length of a lens necessary to produce a 5 inch 
image of a man 70 inches in height on a 5x7 film with the camera 15 

feet from the subject. D^-R + l — For 180 14 + 1 = F or 

= 12. 

Although a minority of the photographs made in the average 
studio are full length portraits, the floor space should he available if 
needed 

This brings to mind one of the common short-comings of most 
buildings available for studio quarters: Lack of sufficient ceiling 


13 



Figure 4. The movable light bridge. 


height. The ceilings of the building I occupy are twelve feet high. 
This is higher than average in modern buildings, but I prefer even 
more height. Low angle shots, with the camera practically on the 
floor, require high backgrounds, and they cannot be used in rooms 
with low ceilings. 

The camera room should he equipped with three background 
colors; white, black, and neutral. I have a permanent background 
ten feet high and twelve feet long built at one end of the studio and 
finished in white. For high key pictures, the background is lighted 
by ten lamps in reflectors on a movable light bridge eleven feet above 
the floor. (Figure 4.) 

The black and neutral backgrounds are mounted on a movable 
frame. The black is a cloth covering, the neutral is a specially made 
curtain of ordinary green window shade material mounted on a 
roller so that it can be raised out of the way when the black back¬ 
ground is used. This background is eight feet high and ten feet long, 
and is equipped with ball hearing casters to facilitate movement 
about the camera room. The black is used when a jet black back¬ 
ground is desired. The green curtain can be used for a range of tones 
from medium to almost black, depending upon the light that is used 
upon it. (See Figure 5.) 


14 



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White screens are difficult to finish, and I hope the reader who 
has occasion to build one can profit by my experience. First, of 
course, it is necessary to have a frame of 2x4 material constructed 
in exactly the same way a carpenter builds a partition in a building. 
I used three pieces of five-ply plywood, four feet wide and ten feet 
high for my background. I also used an extra piece of the same 
material on the side wall at right angles to the background to get the 
effect of the corner of a room. (Figure 6.) 

Three-ply material can be obtained, but it is not heavy enough 
for such a large background. The plywood is next nailed to the frame 
with finish nails which are driven well into the wood with a nail set 
and the holes filled with putty. It is particularly important that the 
joints between sections be filled level full with wood filler or putty; 
otherwise an ugly shadow will result. The entire background is next 
sanded until it is perfectly smooth and then given a good coat of 
white shellac. Now here is the important part of the job. Do not he 
tempted to use any kind of paint or oil finish, because it is sure to 
have enough lustre to reflect light. Use Kalsomine which dries in a 
few hours, and if it gets soiled can he washed off and repainted. When 
dry, it is absolutely flat white with no grain of wood showing and no 
glare will be reflected from it. 

One of the most important advantages of artificial light is the 


15 













Figure 6. Corner effect 

obtained by addition to background. 


possibility of control. If there are windows in the camera room, they 
should be covered with heavy opaque shades or, preferably, closed 
up entirely. If all of the light in the camera room is subject to control, 
negatives of predetermined quality can he made because exposures 
will he based on uniform light values. 


16 



CHAPTER TWO 




Equipment 


The portrait photographer should provide himself with the hest 
equipment available. Good tools are essential to good craftsmanship 
and makeshift equipment is poor economy. 

I know of no hobby or profession so infested with “gadgets’* 1 as 
photography. Many of these “gadgets” are unnecessary, if not an 
actual nuisance. They are all right for the dilettante; their purchase 
keeps money in circulation and the use of them probably does no 
harm. 

But the serious amateur and the professional photographer 
should constantly strive for a simplified technique. The photographer 
whose experience is limited should take plenty of time when making 
purchases because photographic equipment is expensive and mistakes 
are costly. 

Lenses 

The most important item of equipment for portrait photography 
is the lens. A lens made by a reputable manufacturer should be re¬ 
garded as a long term investment because with proper care it will 
out-last several cameras. 

Long focus lenses are generally recommended for portrait pho¬ 
tography on the theory that they produce truer perspective. That this 
supposed advantage is largely imaginary is now known to most pho¬ 
tographers. Of course, anyone can place a camera equipped with a 


17 




sliorl focus lens so close to the subject that what is commonly known 
as distortion or untrue perspective is inevitable. The long focus lens 
throws a larger image on the ground glass, thus compelling the pho¬ 
tographer to move the camera farther away from the scene in order 
to keep the picture within the limits of the plate. Moving the camera , 
however, does not change the perspective , it merely reduces the size 
of the image on the plate. The short focus lens always covers a wider 
field and the image is correspondingly smaller. If a view camera is 
set up and a long and short focus lens compared by focusing on a 
nearby street scene, the difference will be evident the moment the 
image appears on the ground glass; but the perspective is the same 
for each lens. 

This point is clearly demonstrated by three pictures. Figure 7 is 
a contact print from one-half of a 5x7 negative and was made with a 
10 inch lens. Figure 8 is also a contact print from the other half of 
the same negative, and was made with a 6 inch lens. The only differ¬ 
ence between these two pictures is that the image is larger in Figure 
7. Now look at Figure 9. This is an enlargement of a portion of the 
negative from which Figure 8 was made, so that the image is the same 
size as the image in the contact print in Figure 7. There is no apparent 
difference between Figures 7 and 9, and I offer these prints as con¬ 
clusive evidence that there is no difference in perspective. 

I hasten to add for the benefit of those of limited experience that 
it would be easy, with the same lenses I used to make the pictures in 
Figures 7, 8, and 9 to produce negatives which would apparently 
justify an entirely different conclusion. Everyone has seen the mon¬ 
strosities used to illustrate the theory that difference in the focal 
length of lenses change perspective. A careful examination of pic¬ 
tures used to prove the long focus story should convince anyone that 
the examples are obtained by the deliberate misuse of the short focus 
lens. Common sense must, of course, be used in posing subjects and 
in keeping the camera far enough away when working with the 
shorter focal lengths. 

Plate size in relation to the focal length of the lens is an important 
consideration. A lens used with one plate might be of comparatively 


18 



Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 


long focal length but the same lens with a larger plate might be con¬ 
sidered a short focus lens. For example, a 10 inch lens when used 
with an 8x10 plate would he considered a short focus lens for general 
work, but the same lens used with a 4x5 plate is of relatively long 
focal length. In other words, a 10 inch lens used with a 4x5 plate is 
the equivalent of a 20 inch lens when used with an 8x10 plate. 

“Distortion” or poor perspective is caused by using the short 
focus lens too close to the subject. The closer the camera in relation 
to subject, the greater the apparent distortion and likewise, the 
shorter the focal length, the more noticeable the distortion will be 
in images of the same size. The distance from camera to subject, 
which will result in a photograph that is completely free from distor¬ 
tion, depends upon the focal length of the lens. The photographer 
can determine, by making a few test shots at measured distances, how 
close to the subject he can work with a particular lens without obtain¬ 
ing noticeable distortion. One of the advantages of cameras equipped 
for ground glass focusing is that distortion can be detected by a study 
of the image on the ground glass. 

In modern studio practice, most prints are made by projection. 
The negative made with the short focus lens is simply enlarged to 
compensate for the smaller image, the extra space around the desired 
portion of the negative being eliminated in the enlarging. 


19 


The short focus lens has an enormous advantage in depth of 
field; i. e., the distance between the nearest point to the camera and 
the most distant point that is sharply in focus. This also makes faster 
shutter speeds possible because it is not necessary to stop down so 
far to get depth. The plane in which all objects are sharp is com¬ 
paratively thin with the long focus lens and to obtain a sufficient 
depth of focus it is often necessary to move the camera hack so far 
that the advantage of the long focal length is lost entirely. The only 
remaining way to increase the depth of focus is to stop down which 
increases exposure—a serious handicap to the portrait photographer. 

It is highly significant that in the motion picture industry, where 
short exposures are absolutely necessary, that the lenses used are of 
short focal length so that they may have a sufficient depth of focus 
to operate at large apertures. 

Manufacturers have spent huge sums of money extolling the 
virtues of ultra-rapid lenses for portraiture. Maximum speeds, how¬ 
ever, are only available when lenses are used at full aperture. 
Stopped down, the high speed objectives are no faster than any other 
lens when used at the same aperture. High speed is an expensive 
feature, especially in long focus lenses; and if it is necessary in order 
to obtain more depth of field, to work with the lens stopped down, 
it is a waste of money to buy one. 

Many years ago, photography went picking daffodils, and the 
principal memento of that unfortunate expedition is the soft focus 
lens. The exponents of the soft focus lens have numerous reasons 
for their choice of equipment hut few of them are convincing. Many 
of them, for example, argue that the human eye cannot focus sharply 
on both near and far objects at the same time and that the camera 
should see as we see with our eyes. 

When we look at a given point, the mind, with the eye, is focused 
upon that point and, therefore, objects at an oblique angle, or in the 
distance are not sharply focused to the eye. But because of the fact 
that the mind at the moment is ignoring all except the particular 
object on which its attention is focused, our consciousness does not 


20 


register any feeling of out of focus. When we examine a photograph, 
we are looking at a scene which has been reduced to a flat plane, with 
the result that both the eye and the mind encompasses the whole of 
the photograph at one time. Because of this, any pronounced falling 
off of focus from one plane to the other becomes much more notice¬ 
able than any such situation could be when natural objects are being 
observed. 

It is surely significant that the greatest living photographers use 
sharp lenses, and I predict that when the record of photography is 
finally written that few, if any, of the immortals will come from the 
soft focus department. 

Many honest portrait photographers use soft focus lenses, and 
these remarks will not please them. But the modern trend is toward 
realism and “fuzzy” photographs are definitely a thing of the past. 
The frequent use of soft focus lenses by mountebanks to conceal had 
craftsmanship has helped to place this technique in ill repute. 

The theory that soft focus lenses were developed so that photog¬ 
raphers could imitate painters has always amused me. Certainly, no 
one would attempt to justify the soft focus lens by comparing the 
results with the portraits of Goya, Holbein, or Ingres. The portrait 
of “Nurse and Child” (Figure 10) by Frans Hals is, in my opinion, 
about as sharply “in focus” as it is possible for a painting to be. 

There is no such thing as a perfect lens for all purposes. For 
modern portrait photography I would insist upon an anastigmatic 
lens made by a reputable manufacturer. The lenses of Carl Zeiss, 
Voigtlander, and Cooke are recommended, my particular favorite 
being the Carl Zeiss Tessar. I do not mean to imply that only the 
above manufacturers make good lenses because there are many other 
concerns with reputations above reproach, whose lenses may he 
equally as good as the lenses I have named. I simply restrict my 
recommendations to the lenses I have actually used. 

It is a good idea to purchase lenses subject to trial, and these 
terms should be arranged with the dealer before the lens is accepted. 
Make sure that the lens covers the plate sharply to the very edges. 


21 


The focal lengths suggested here are only approximate, and the 
lens selected will depend to some extent upon the kind of portraits 
to be made. For general work, a 12 inch lens can be used on 8x10 
cameras. For large heads, a 16 inch lens is ample, but the long 
focus fans will say it is too short and call for a 20 inch lens. For a 
5x7, a 10 inch, and for 4x5, about 8 inches are conservative—neither 
extremely short nor too long. I consider the 314x414 camera a little 
too small for portraiture, but 1 have seen some excellent pictures 
made with a camera of that size equipped with a 6 inch lens. 

Some authorities recommend the focal length of the lens to he 
used according to plate sizes. For example, to make large head photo¬ 
graphs, a lens with a focal length, equivalent to the sum of the length 
and width of the plate is recommended. According to this formula a 
lens for an 8x10 camera should have a focal length of 18 inches. For 
three-quarter view and figure portraits, a focal length based on the 
diagonal of the plate is often recommended. Thus, for an 8x10 plate, 
a lens with a focal length of approximately 13 inches would he 
required. 

The maximum speed of any lens can only be obtained when the 
lens is used at full aperture. If, as I have pointed out, the lens has 
to be stopped down to obtain sufficient depth of focus, there is no 
advantage in buying a lens faster than f4.5 even for photographing 
children. An f6.3 lens is fast enough for portraits of adults, hut the 
f4.5 lens is more convenient to focus because the larger aperture 
throws more light on the ground glass. 

Cameras 

There are a great many types of cameras on the market, hut 
there is no single camera that is ideal for every kind of photography. 
Search for a universal camera is as hopeless as an effort to find a 
universal lens. A suitable camera for one photographer may be 
lacking in the very qualities another considers indispensable. One 
solution of this problem is to purchase the camera that most nearly 
meets the requirements. Many amateurs find one camera sufficient 
but most professional photographers own several cameras. 


22 



Courtesy E. A. Seemann 


23 




Nearly all portrait prints are now made by projection. An 8x10 
print today is seldom made by contact; it may be enlarged from 4x5, 
5x7, or from one of several exposures on the same negative. Alt bo ugh 
most manufacturers of studio and view cameras have discontinued 
making cameras smaller than 5x7, it is possible to have reducing 
backs made for cut film magazines or for small negatives in cut film 
holders. A sliding back or sliding wood masks working under the 
ground glass back of studio and view cameras provide a means of 
making several exposures on one negative. Good negatives, 4x5, 5x7, 
or 8x10 in size can be retouched if necessary and may be enlarged 
to almost any size desired without showing objectionable grain or 
marks of retouching. Good 4x5 negatives enlarge nicely to 8x10 or 
11x14, and the other sizes enlarge in about the same proportion. 
By using 4x5 negatives or by making more than one exposure on each 
5x7 or 8x10 negative the professional photographer can submit more 
proofs and a greater variety of poses without excessive negative cost. 

There are three general types of cameras from which equipment 
can be selected for any kind of portraiture. Many photographers use 
all three because each type lias advantages—as well as some disadvan¬ 
tages. The three types are studio or stand cameras, view cameras, 
and reflecting cameras of which the “Graflex” is the best known in 
the United States. The reader will note that all have one feature in 
common—ground glass focusing. There is absolutely no satisfactory 
substitute for the ground glass as a means of focusing a camera for 
portraits. The ground glass also makes it possible to study the com po¬ 
sition of the portrait, precisely as it will appear on the negative. 

The Studio camera is the subject of many jokes among moderns. 
Certainly it is not a masterpiece of mechanical engineering, and no 
real improvements have been made in it since I can remember. But 
in defense of this lumbering behemoth, let me point out one great 
virtue— stability. Freedom from vibration is essential if prolonged 
exposures are to be made. Studio cameras were, of course, designed 
to support the weight of large heavy lenses and long focal lengths 
required a long bellows. The old timers made contact prints so a 


24 


studio camera for 11x14 plates had a bellows about the size of a 
mine shaft. 

The chief objection to the studio camera is its dimensions. Built 
for 8x10 or 11x14, smaller negatives can he made by using a reducing 
back. Size and weight restrict the studio camera to interior work 
which means other equipment must be provided for portraits out¬ 
doors or away from the studio. 

In many respects the view camera is the better camera for 
general use for it combines the adjustments of the studio camera with 
another highly desirable quality—portability. For use in the studio, 
the view camera should be installed on a substantial camera stand 
because most tripods are not solid enough and are too easily over¬ 
turned. If extremely heavy lenses are used, view cameras are not 
substantial enough to support them. 

For the amateur, the view camera has many good features; and 
it is my choice of equipment for those who wish to learn the funda¬ 
mentals of photography. It has ample bellows extension for complete 
lens equipment from wide angle to telephoto, rising front, swing 
hack, and vertical or horizontal pictures can be made. 

I have made thousands of portraits with a 4x5 Graflex, and I 
consider this camera indispensable for work with children. My 
Graflex is equipped with magazines with a capacity of eighteen cut 
films instead of the usual twelve. The Graflex is a self-contained unit, 
ideal for fast exposures, particularly where rapid reloading is neces¬ 
sary. Another advantage is that the mirror reflector construction for 
focusing throws the image on the ground glass right side up. Studio 
and view cameras are, in my opinion, however, to be preferred for 
full length figure portraits. A low camera angle is often desirable in 
pictures of this kind, and the rising front available on view and 
studio cameras is necessary. Strange as it may seem, the only criti¬ 
cism I have concerns one of the features of the “Graflex” which is 
the pride and joy of the manufacturer, the “Focal Plane Shutter.” 
Mechanically, the shutter is all that is claimed for it hut it is entirely 
too noisy for studio work; and it is very difficult to use for long 
exposures. When the shutter is opened for time exposures, the subject 


25 



is usually startled by the sound and moves before the shutter can be 
closed. The obvious remedy, of course, is to yell “hold it” before 
opening the shutter—thus freezing the subject for the duration of the 
exposure but the practice is not recommended. I use a lens in a 
“Compound” shutter on my Graflex—and incidentally, a long cable 
release is a great convenience. When, for example, a portrait is made 
of a child, the subject is seated and the camera focused. The com¬ 
pound shutter is “set” and the focal plane shutter is then opened. 
Usually a half dozen negatives or more are made of a variety of 
expressions in this pose before it is again necessary to focus for an¬ 
other pose. Studio cameras should be equipped with a silent shutter 
operated by a bulb, and air valve. 

For outdoor portraits the most satisfactory tripod is the type built 
for motion picture cameras. (Figure 11.) For studio photography, 
with a small view camera or a “Graflex,” the Agfa-Ansco Corporation 
make a good tripod. (Figure 12.) 

An outfit consisting of an 8x10 studio camera, a 5x7 view camera 
for outside work, and a 4x5 Graflex for children and home portraits 


26 





is complete enough to cover the entire field of professional por¬ 
traiture. Those who specialize can get along with one or more of 
the types listed. For home portraiture, the amateur should consider 
the “Graflex” or possibly a miniature camera. 

Miniature Cameras 

Although several hundred thousand miniature cameras have been 
sold, they are seldom used by professional portrait photographers; 
and I doubt that they will ever come into general use in portrait 
studios. There are several reasons for this—none of which constitute 
a valid objection to the miniature camera for amateurs. 

The first problem is purely psychological and has to do with the 
confidence of the subject while in the camera room. Expecting to 
face a camera of the approximate size and appearance of a piece of 
field artillery, the subject is sure to be disappointed when confronted 
by an instrument indistinguishable from the Sunday picnic camera. 

From a technical point of view, the chief objection to the minia¬ 
ture camera is that the negatives are too small to retouch. 

Then, there is the matter of special fine grain developers and the 


27 





necessity of extreme care in the handling of miniature negatives. Dust 
spots on small negatives, when magnified in enlarging, cause endless 
trouble. The professional photographer must, necessarily, hire much 
of his work done and assistants skilled enough to work with precision 
(miniature) equipment are seldom available. 

The amateur photographer has the advantage of plenty of time, 
and he can give his personal attention to every detail in the making 
of a picture. 

I have been asked, on numerous occasions, for advice in regard 
to the purchase of miniature cameras. I have often recommended 
their purchase and even helped select the camera. I think they are 
fine for those who have spare time and a penchant for “gadgets.” 
But I have never been sold on a miniature camera for any kind of 
portraiture except the home variety. 

Advice to the miniature camera “fan” is generally wasted because 
most of them have made up their minds already and merely want 
someone to agree with them. Some of them, in fact, are downright 
belligerant about it, and those who have any regard for peace and 
quiet are cautioned against engaging in discussions on such contro¬ 
versial subjects. When a man with a print having grain the con¬ 
sistency of coarse sandpaper steps up, with a chip on his shoulder, 
and challenges you to find a “trace of grain,” you are face to face 
with a had case of self-hypnotism. For the benefit of any reader vho 
might feel that what I have said is due to some sort of personal preju¬ 
dice in this matter, I will rest my case on a paragraph from Page 160 
of Fortune Magazine for October, 1936: 

“There seems, then, to he no one reason for the minicam 
boom. But if we choose to dig deeper we come up with a 
subtle and perhaps significant fact: that by a very large 
number of people the Leica was not bought as a camera. Many 
a man who had owned a Kodak for years without feeling any 
impulse to see what he could do with it if he applied himself 
fancied that in the Leica he was finding a new invention that 
defied the laws of optics and would give him good pictures 
with no light to speak of and no effort save that of pressing 


28 



I 

I the button. The Leica didn t even look Jike a camera. No 
bellows, no bulk, no focusing hood; you shot from the hip, so 
to speak, and got your man. Beginning in 1932 the Leica 
traveling exhibitions in Germany gave added encouragement 
to the tyro in this wishful thinking. Featuring the masterly 
enlargements of such experts as Dr. Wolff, they gave him the 
impression that for a couple of hundred dollars he could turn 
out stuff just as good. True, to display the best camera work 
of artists like Wolff and Salomon and Hoffman and Aikins and 
McAvoy as the product of the Leica is something like point¬ 
ing to sketches by James Montgomery Flagg as samples of the 
work of the Venus pencil. But as promotion it was a jim- 
dandy idea. And to encourage Americans further in the useful 
notion that the Leica was not a mere camera, Leica publicity 
brains even coined a new word to take the place of photog¬ 
raphy. The word was Leicography.” 

Lighting Equipment 

If a sample of every kind of lighting equipment could be gathered 
under one roof, as Noah assembled the animals in the Ark, the result 
would be an impenetrable jungle. I do not propose to add to the 
confusion by a discussion of every kind of lighting equipment, 
because the methods described in this book presuppose the use of 
incandescent lamps in suitable reflectors. 

Since the introduction of Panchromatic film, the motion picture 
industry has, in my opinion, contributed more to the improvement 
of lighting technique than all other agencies combined. The almost 
universal use of incandescent lamps in motion picture production 
dates from the synchronizing of sound and pictures. Arc lights, 
formerly in general use, were abandoned because the microphone 
picked up the hissing and sputtering characteristic of that type of 
illumination. The earlier incandescent lighting units gave some 
trouble with a “hum” particularly when the lamps were cold but 
most of the faults have been eliminated. The finest lighting equip¬ 
ment available to the photographer today is unquestionably the 
equipment manufactured for motion picture photography. 


29 



Perfection of incandescent lighting equipment lias not, however, 
rendered arc lights obsolete. In addition to their extensive use by 
commercial photographers, they are again being used in motion 
picture productions. Improved high-intensity arc lamps have been 
designed for color motion picture photography and no doubt many 
photographers will see possibilities in the new equipment for portrait 
photography. 

Mercury vapor lights were also in general use by portrait photog¬ 
raphers, but they have been replaced by incandescent lamps in the 
modern studios. The principal reason for this change is the general 
use of Panchromatic film which, being highly sensitive to red, permits 
extremely fast exposures when used with incandescent lamps. The 
mercury vapor lamp provides a light of very high actinic value in 
blue-violet rays, hut is deficient in red rays, to which Panchromatic 
film is highly sensitive. Before Panchromatic film was introduced, 
the high actinic value of mercury vapor light provided the most rapid 
exposures with the plates and films then in use. Because of its 
deficiency in red rays, mercury vapor light exaggerates blemishes, 
freckles, and the tiny veins under the skin. Attempts to balance the 
mercury vapor light by combining incandescent lamps or by the 
addition of red neon tubing has not restored this type of light to 
its former popularity. 

The Photo Flood lamp has wonderful possibilities for both 
amateur and professional photographers. With comparatively inex¬ 
pensive equipment, the amateur can make intimate, natural portraits 
of his family and friends. I have an auxiliary outfit consisting of 
three reflectors, two collapsible stands and a 30-foot extension cord 
which can he carried in one suitcase. I have used this portable equip¬ 
ment for weddings, groups, and commercial shots away from the 
studio and in places where it would be impossible to use my regular 
equipment. 

In a recent magazine article,* I suggested that every photographer 
should try to develop a style or technique of his own, particularly in 

*“Notes on Portraiture,” Camera Craft, January, 1937. 


30 


Left, Figure 13 
Right, Figure 14 




lighting. I pointed out, for the benefit of beginners that a lighting 
outfit could be assembled for experimental work by wiring some tin 
dish pans for reflectors. An outfit can be made at nominal cost by 
purchasing the dish pans and other materials at the dime store, hut 
there is so much low-priced equipment on the market that it is 
scarcely worth the trouble. I have made a lot of portraits with an 
outfit that cost less than ten dollars. 

For those who require high-intensity lamps at a moderate cost, the 
“Cinelite”* is recommended. (Figure 13.) This lamp uses the No. 4 
photo-flood globe consuming 1000 watts, but 500 watt mogul based 
regular P.S.** Mazda globes may be used. Portability is another 
feature of this unit. 

The reflectors can be telescoped, one over the other, so that a 
dozen complete units can be transported in the luggage compartment 

*Cinelite M-R Type 16. Manufactured by Mole-Richardson, Inc., Hollywood, California. 

**The letters “P.S.” refer to the shape of the incandescent globe. 


31 





of a coupe automobile. The pedestal can be folded into a small space 
(see Figure 16) and when in use has a vertical adjustment of 54" to 
84". This equipment is recommended for the amateur photographer. 

The most important part of every piece of lighting equipment is 
the reflector. Regardless of cost or the material of which it is made, 
the important thing is the form , for this determines its efficiency. 
Modern artificial lighting has been called “painting with light,” and 
that is a good description of what can be done with equipment that 
provides absolute control of all the light used in making a picture. 

A north skylight was the light source for studio portraits in the 
early days of photography. When artificial light was introduced, it 
was used as a substitute for the skylight. The result was soft general 
illumination with the inevitable reflector on the shadow side of the 
picture. Accent lighting came in later, probably with spot lights 
from the theatre. Lights were grouped or suspended from the ceiling 
so that the light came from a fixed source like the skylight. The 
background, usually a painted scene on a cloth curtain, was also 
fixed in proper relation to the skylight. The better modern lighting 
unit is strong in precisely the qualities which were lacking in the old 
skylight —portability and control. By portability, I mean that the 
unit can be moved about the studio on casters or transported to any 
location where it may be needed. Control not only requires an efficient 
reflector, designed for a particular lighting effect, hut the unit must 
he adjustable as to height and the angle at which the light is projected. 

The lighting methods described in this hook require equipment 
for general illumination, background lighting, and special effects, the 
type and number of lighting units depending upon whether the 
photographer follows the plans outlined generally or specializes in a 
certain kind of portraiture. 

For general illumination, I have, for many years favored the 
“Rifle” floodlight. (Figure 14.) The parabolic reflector is made of 
chromium plate, spirally rifled and encased in a shell of aluminum. 
The unit is designed for use with 1000, 1500, or 2000 watt P.S. 52 
lamps. The head is mounted on a telescopic pedestal, equipped with 
hall bearing, rnbber-tired casters. The lamp receptacle and the switch 


32 



Figure 15 


Figure 16 


Figure 1 7 



is encased in an aluminum housing, mounted back of the reflector. 
The head can be clamped at any height from about four to eight feet; 
or if desired, it can he removed from the pedestal and used on an 
overhead platform. 

The variety of effects obtainable with two of these units is almost 
endless. They are powerful enough for instantaneous exposures. 
They can be used for general illumination of full figure portraits 
or they can he moved in close for dramatic lightings with strong 
contrasts. 

Mole-Richardson, Inc. of Hollywood, manufacture what in my 
estimation is about the last word in lighting equipment, which is the 
“Solarspot.” (Figures 15 and 16.) Incidentally, the products of that 
concern are unexcelled in material, workmanship, and efficiency. 

The “Solarspot” is obtainable in several sizes ranging from 500 
to 5000 watts capacity. One of the features of this lamp is that it 


33 











furnishes a beam of illumination which may he varied by focusing, 
to provide a smooth distribution in all beam divergences from 10 to 
45 degrees. This compares with a light distribution over an angle 
of 60 degrees furnished by the “Rifle” type lamp. 

Previously, spot-lamps have utilized the plano-convex condenser 
lens as the optical element. In spot-lamps utilizing the incandescent 
globe as an illuminant, this has been a serious limitation because 
plano-convex condensers of focus suitable for effective use with in¬ 
candescent globes must he of short focus. This in the plano-convex 
type of condenser necessitates that they he made very thick, which 
reduces their light transmission capacity and makes them subject to 
excessive breakage even though manufactured of heat resisting glass. 

The “Solarspot” combines the best features of both spot and 
flood lamps. Its focusing mechanism provides a highly concentrated 
beam when a spotlight is required and a floodlight of sufficient inten¬ 
sity and angle (45°) for the main light source. 

The most common type of equipment for accent lighting is the 
spotlight of which there is an enormous variety. Care should be 
exercised in the selection of spotlights for the small studio, because 
more pictures are ruined by excess power in spotlights than by a lack 
of power. The smaller spotlights, of 500 watts or less, are useful 
for high lighting the hair in portraits of women. The larger spot¬ 
lights are used for accent lighting, hack lighting, and when heavy 
shadows are wanted. 

Before buying a spotlight, project a beam of light on a wall 
and make sure there is no dark center or filament image from the 
lamp. The lamp receptacle should be mounted on a movable carrier 
that is adjustable for focusing from the outside of the housing. A 
mirror reflector should be mounted on the carrier behind the lamp. 
The head should be removable so that it can he used from an over¬ 
head platform or on the floor. The pedestal should be of telescopic 
construction on rubber-tired casters. Although the heads of most 
spotlights are well ventilated, the lamps produce a lot of heat which is 
likely to crack the condensing lens unless it is mounted in a frame 
designed to give unrestricted expansion. 


34 


For studios with plenty of floor space and ceiling height, there 
is another type of accent light called the “Sun Light” or “Sun Spot” 
(Figure 17). These units are extensively used in motion picture 
production for back and cross lighting from the top of sets and 
for front lighting of exceptionally large sets. They are also used 
for intense lighting through windows, doors, and for sunlight effects. 
The head of the “Sun Spot” ranges in size from 18" to 36" in 
diameter, depending upon the amount of light that is desired. The 
reflector is a concave mirror and the lamps used range from 2000 
to 10,000 watts. The head is removable and the pedestal is similar 
in construction to the other units I have described. The “Sun Spot” 
is, as I have suggested, primarily intended for motion picture work 
on large sets, and unless special effects are wanted in a large studio, 
they are not essential in portrait photography. 

The Overhead Strip 

The overhead strip (Figure 4) is one of the most important light¬ 
ing units for portrait photography. The trend in modern decoration 
of homes and apartments is definitely toward light tones. High key 
portraits are in keeping with the new interiors, and a properly 
lighted white background is absolutely necessary. Most overhead 
strips consist of a single elongated metal reflector enclosing a row 
of receptacles for P.S. 52 type lamps. One of the essential features 
of an overhead strip is some method by which to securely lock the 
unit in any desired position from horizontal to vertical, or inter¬ 
mediate positions. The adjustment is necessary in order to correct 
the angle of the strip for various elevations and distances from the 
background. Most strips are made for four or five lamps and more 
than one strip may be required for large backgrounds. Small back¬ 
grounds can be lighted by spotlights or floodlights, hut the overhead 
strip is more efficient and has the added advantage of saving valuable 
floor space. 

Portable Panel Board 

Most manufacturers equip lighting units with switches, which 
are a convenience if not an actual necessity when working with a 
crew of stage hands. In the portrait studio, however, it is a nuisance 


35 


to have to go about turning lamps on and off. This inconvenience 
can be eliminated by the use of a portable panel board. Equipped 
with casters so that it can be kept within easy reach of the camera, 
it provides a centralized control for all lighting units. The panel 
board should have as many outlets as there are lighting units in the 
studio with a separate switch and fuse for each. There should be a 
main service switch on the panel hoard to cut off all power on the 
line from the building to the panel hoard. If all lamps are controlled 
from the panel, switches on lighting units can he eliminated, thereby 
reducing one source of short circuits and other troubles to a 
minimum. 

Monotone Viewing Glass 

The photographer should visualize the finished picture while 
the lights are being placed in position. For this purpose the viewing 
glass or “Monotone Monocle” is a valuable device. (Figure 18.) For 
convenience in use it is mounted in a monocle frame which can he 
carried in the pocket or worn about the cameraman’s neck on a 
small cord. Occasionally, they are mounted in ordinary eyeglass 
frames, but this method is not popular. For motion picture photog¬ 
raphy, they are often built into a view finder on the camera. They 
can be obtained for either Panchromatic or Ortliochromatic film. 
The monotone filter or viewing glass is, as the name indicates, 
designed to reduce the scene from color as seen on the ground glass 
of the camera, to a range of tones in one color, and proportional in 
relative brightness to what the film will record. In other words, 
the eye can see, by the aid of the viewing glass, as the camera sees. 
Or perhaps it would he more accurate to say that the eye sees through 
a Panchromatic viewing glass what Panchromatic film sees through 
the lens. The tones observed through the glass approximate those 
in the finished photograph provided, of course, that a normal nega¬ 
tive and a normal print is made. 

The viewing glass is especially helpful in the making of pictures 
with strong contrasts and heavy shadows. Such a subject may seem 
to have plenty of illumination in the shadow portions when looked 
at with the naked eye. The observer will often be astonished to see 


36 



how devoid of detail such shadow areas are when seen through the 
viewing glass. 

This, of course, means that the shadows need more light to 
avoid under-exposure. A portrait negative, hadly under-exposed, 
is practically worthless because intensification or retouching will 
not put detail in the portion of a negative where it never existed. 

The viewing glass enables the photographer to visualize the 
lights and shadows and the tone values of the scene as they will be 
recorded on the film. It is not a device to determine the correct 
exposure, nor is it a substitute for an exposure meter. It is never 
used over the lens of the camera to obtain modification of the color 
values of the subject, or to inspect the scene on the ground glass.* 

Exposure Meters 

A good exposure meter is an indispensable item of equipment, 

^Viewing glasses or monotone filters are manufactured by the Eastman Kodak Company, Roches¬ 
ter, New York; by George H. Scheibe, Los Angeles, Calif., and by Harrison & Harrison, Hollywood, 
Calif. 


37 




Z/o/iyr fa ZoZf A/ffer /r> f>/ac<s 


Ia/wsa r" 

i_i u 




Z3 


u 

.^1 



Aarref sAauZZ Z><? ZZn?ao<?t/ cor A Z/ntny Zo Z/Z 

ZnsZ</e Zofre/cnZ nr/ZecZZon orcr Sense mount 


Figure 19 


and the superiority of the photo-electric cell type is, I think, gen¬ 
erally conceded. The ability to judge exposures can be developed 
to a remarkable degree by experience, but the faculty is of doubtful 
value unless the photographer is working under precisely the same 
conditions every day. Some professional photographers refuse to 
have anything to do with exposure meters, and I have often suspected 
them of being afraid to admit that they do not know the correct 
exposures. The man who makes outstanding portraits will not hesi¬ 
tate to use unusual lighting effects and by the same token he will 
use an exposure meter to produce better negatives. 

The Sun Shade 

No experienced motion picture cameraman would think of oper¬ 
ating a camera without a sun shade. Why the average photographer 


38 
























is so careless in this respect has always been a mystery to me. It is 
not enough to protect the lens from the direct rays of the sun or 
artificial lights, for quite as much damage can come from reflected 
light from objects near the camera and particularly from pavements 
and polished floors. 

Sun shades for lenses of average size can be turned on a lathe, 
by a competent mechanic, from brass or bronze tubing. The flange 
that fits over the lens should be lined with a thin strip of cork to 
avoid scratches which might result from placing metal against metal, 
and to provide a means of absorbing the expansion and contraction 
of metals due to temperature changes. The inside of the shade 
should be threaded and painted black so that stray shafts of light 
will not be reflected into the lens. I have a sun shade made in two 
parts, with a flange to hold circular Wratten filters in place. (Figure 
19.) The shade, if made to order, should be as long as it is possible to 
use without cutting the corners of the plate. The actual length will 
vary according to the focal length of the lens with which it is to 
be used. 


39 


CHAPTER THREE 


Principles of Lighting 


I shall endeavor to analyze the fundamental principles of 
lighting as a foundation for their application to various types of 
portrait subjects which will be discussed in later chapters. It would 
be comparatively easy to work out a system with the number, type 
and power of lighting units specified. But systems imply standardi¬ 
zation and when that idea is carried too far art flies out of the 
window. A system based on sound lighting principles is all right 
for a photographer who has developed a style and who specializes 
in a particular kind of portrait. But with the possibility of literally 
hundreds of variations from the basic lightings there is no need 
for any photographer to adopt someone’s standardized system. In this 
connection I think what I wrote in a recent issue of “Camera Craft” 
is worth repeating. 

“The first and in my opinion the most important accomplish¬ 
ment of the portrait photographer is to develop a style or technique 
by which his work can be identified among a group of photographs. 
It is a matter of common knowledge that the works of great painters 
have been identified hundreds of years after the death of the artist 
by the technique which is characteristic of each man’s work. There 
are photographers living today whose style is so familiar to most of 
us that we can name the photographer by looking at his pictures. 
The possibility that it may require several years to perfect a style 


40 



will not discourage those who have the necessary courage, intelli¬ 
gence and energy to make a success of portrait photography.” 

The best advice I can offer is—read everything available on 
lighting, study the motion picture, exhibitions of painting and other 
art mediums; but stick close to fundamentals and develop your 
own lighting system. 

The Law of Inverse Squares 

No photographer can ignore the laws of light and escape the 
consequences. Everyone who uses artificial light should have this 
fundamental law engraved in his memory. 

The intensity of light varies inversely as the square of the 
distance from the light source. 

Reduced to everyday language it means that light projected from 
a given point covers a larger area as the distance from the source of 
light is increased. If, for example, a light two* feet from the subject 
is moved to twice that distance (4 feet) the light value will he 
decreased to one quarter because the light is distributed over four 
times the area. (Figure 20.) It is evident that in such case it would 
be necessary to increase the exposure four times to compensate for 
the difference in light value. 

Another way to explain the operation of this fundamental law 
is to say that one 1000 watt lamp at two feet delivers as much light 

:!: In actual practice a lamp would never be used as close as two feet from a subject. 


41 





















value as four 1000 watt lamps at four feet. (Figure 21.) 

Distance From Lamps to Subject 

The studio should he equipped with lamps of sufficient power 
so that they can he operated at a comfortable distance from the 
subject. When lamps are too close some subjects seem to “wilt” 
under the glare and heat. On the other hand the lamps should not 
be used so far away as to require an excessive number of lighting 
units or prolonged exposures. 

I have always considered it a mistake for a writer to specify an 
exact distance from lamps to subject because no one can hope to 
make successful portraits until he learns to judge for himself the 
proper distance from lamps to subject for the particular equipment 
which he uses. Faces and poses are seldom enough alike so that a 
lighting set up which would fit one face and pose would also fully 
fit another. Equipment and sensitized materials are constantly 
changing, and instructions which might be correct today might he 
totally unsatisfactory under changed conditions. 

Certainly anyone sufficiently interested in portraiture to read 
a hook of this kind must own an exposure meter or at least should 
have enough experience to calculate exposures. 


42 












Manufacturers of certain kinds of lamps publish diagrams and 
show distances from lights to subject in their advertising, even giving 
exposures but such instructions are intended only for the layman. 
The manufacturer protects himself by specifying the kind of film 
and the lens aperture and he can safely assume that the camera used 
will not require calculations for increased exposure due to bellows 
extension. 

Some photographers hold that lamps operated close to the 
subject emphasize roundness and form while others argue that 
distance is an advantage, pointing out that light projected from 
distance gives a truer rendering of form.* 

The latter theory is commonly illustrated by a diagram of a 
sphere lighted from a distant source. (Figure 22.) The weakness 

*1 speak of form in the sense of imparting a three dimensional quality to the photograph by 
means of a precise gradation of light and shade. 


43 









of this theory is that a point source of light is assumed when as a 
matter of fact nearly all artificial light is gathered by some sort of 
reflector behind the lamp and projected toward the subject. (Figure 
23.) A spotlight is the nearest approach to a point source of light 
but the most efficient spotlights are equipped with reflectors. When 
lamps are used very close to the subject the result is brilliant high¬ 
lights and deep shadows. The strong contrast between the high¬ 
lights and shadows gives the impression of roundness but this result 
should not be accomplished at the expense of the subject’s comfort. 
With lighting equipment of the type described in Chapter 2 of this 
book it is unnecessary to work closer than six or eight feet; with 
spotlights at a greater distance from the subject. Contrast between 
high-lights and shadows can be obtained by the manipulation of 
the lamps in height and position in relation to subject and camera. 

Diffusion of Light. 

I have worked with “raw” light for years and diffusion, to me, 
seems a useless waste of light. If the material used for diffusion is 
really effective it is obvious that the lamps must either be moved 
nearer to the subject or the exposure increased to compensate for it* 
Tracing cloth, for example, reduces the light value 50 to 55%. For 
the benefit of those who insist on diffusion Cello Glass** is recom¬ 
mended. It is more transparent than tracing cloth and is not affected 
by heat. 

Diffusion is used to eliminate glare and to obtain a soft light. I 
prefer to obtain the same end by keeping the lights high enough so 
that they will not strike the subject directly in the eyes and by 
moving them as far from the subject as possible without causing 
prolonged exposures. A subject occasionally complains about the 
brightness of lamps but this is mostly imagination and if the situation 
is handled properly it will soon be forgotten. 

The artificial light in the average studio is not nearly as bright 

’"William Mortensen’s lighting methods, as well as his photographic objectives differ in several 
respects from my own. It is interesting to note, however, that in his book, “Pictorial Lighting,” 
Mr. Mortensen advocates the use of undiffused light in order to obtain a desirable “crispness” in the 
highlights. 

#!l! Cello Glass is wire screen impregnated with cellulose acetate. 


44 




as sun light and the average person suffers no discomfort from 
sun light. Children can be photographed with 1500 watt lamps 
without diffusion, with no apparent discomfort hut if they hear 
parents or the photographer discussing the brightness of the lamps 
they immediately become conscious of them. 

The Main Light 

The location of the lamp or lamps comprising the main light 
source, in relation to the subject or scene, is the most important factor 
in producing a successful photograph with artificial light. 

There are two separate and distinct methods of procedure in the 
placement of the main light. The method that is most frequently 
used is to place the main light source in the desired position and to 
balance it with reflectors or secondary lights. The other method 
is to light the subject or scene with flood lights so that detail will 
he visible, when desired, in the shadows and then, by the use of 
spot lights or other high intensity units, provide what in effect is 
the main light source. The most satisfactory method depends largely 
upon the type of subject or scene and upon the working habits of 
the photographer. 


45 












In general, however, the placement of the main light source first 
is the most satisfactory method for single figure portraits. The 
other method is commonly used on large sets and in studios where 
considerable equipment is available or necessary. 

Secondary Illumination 

In many respects the secondary illumination of the modern 
studio is comparable to the reflected light of the old daylight studio. 
Reflectors were used to balance the light from the main light source, 
a skylight. (An equivalent set-up is shown in Figure 24.) In the 
modern studio floodlights are used instead of reflectors to balance 
the lighting. 

Secondary illumination has an important bearing on exposure. 
The light value can be built up by control of the distance from 
lights to subject so that detail will he visible in the shadows at the 
exposure desired. We have, as a matter of fact, little choice in 
regard to exposure times for portraits. From one-fifth to one-half 
second is about the maximum exposure for adults; this is much too 
long for children. Exposures should never be prolonged to the 
extent that instructions to “hold it” are necessary. A standing figure 
will “sway” so slowly that the motion is almost imperceptable to the 
eye hut if the exposure is too long the negative will have a “fuzzy” 
appearance. 

The monotone filter and the exposure meter are invaluable aids 
when the shadows are being lighted and the secondary illumination 
of the picture arranged. The monotone filter shows how much detail 
will be recorded in the shadows and the exposure meter indicates the 
exposure necessary to record the detail. If the meter shows the 
required exposure to be too long the lights can he moved toward 
the subject until detail in the shadows is within the desired exposure 
range. 

Forty-Five Degree Lighting 

Unquestionably the so-called “45°” lighting is the most com¬ 
monly used of all lighting schemes. It is the accepted lighting 
method in art schools and it has been used by painters and sculptors 


46 




EL 


Figure 25 


for hundreds of years. Its chief virtue is the delineation of form , 
to which photographers should devote far more of their attention. 

There are many interpretations of 45° lighting among photog¬ 
raphers. Some habitually work with lights “unbalanced” for con¬ 
trast and others take a middle course with lights balanced to produce 
a “flat,” even effect. Professional photographers who make portraits 
can generally be distinguished from the fellows who are only inter¬ 
ested in the contents of the subjects purse by the character of the 
lighting, for good, lighting has character and bad lighting has none. 
Outfits working rackets of various kinds have a sort of mass produc¬ 
tion system for herding the boobs through the turnstiles and the 
lighting is usually from an artificial skylight composed of a hank 
of lamps. It is always large and close enough to the floor to hit the 
subject right in the face and to make sure that the shadows don’t get 
out of control, and lend some interest to the picture, a reflector about 
the size of a barn door is anchored nearby. 

The better photographers use lighting units with reflectors de¬ 
signed to project the light over a comparatively small area. The 
Rifle Lamp shown in Figure 14 serves the purpose admirably. One 




47 











EL 



unit supplies the 45° main light and the other, on the shadow side 
but farther away from the subject, is for secondary illumination. 
(Figure 25.) Another method (Figure 26) if sufficient equipment 
is available, is to use two lamps for the 45° main light and one lamp 
about the same distance from the subject on the shadow side for 
secondary illumination. Both Figure 25 and Figure 26 show the 
lamps on the same angle in relation to subject and camera. In actual 
practice, lamps are seldom used at an angle of precisely 45° from 
the subject for reasons that will presently he explained. The distance 
from lights to subject will, of course, vary with different sizes and 
types of lamps and according to the kind of film used and exposure 
required. 

The position or angle of lights in relation to subject and camera 
is different for each portrait subject. I have always considered the 
location of a piece of lighting equipment as a zone within which the 
unit may be moved to obtain the desired effect and to increase or 
decrease the indicated exposure. Experience crystallizes the working 
habits of a cameraman until he follows an orderly system of arrang¬ 
ing the lights, and the zones for various units are as accurately estab¬ 
lished in his mind as if marked on the floor with chalk. Sometimes 
the “zone” for the main 45° light is on the left of the subject and the 
secondary illumination zone on the right and vice versa. In either 


48 









case the method of working is identical and the choice of position 
for the main light depends entirely upon which side of the subject’s 
features are best or upon the pictorial composition of the portrait. 

To illustrate the zone idea I have prepared a floor plan based 
on the 45° lighting shown in Figure 26. (See Figure 27.) Instead 
of showing the lights in a particular spot, two “zones” have been 
established and we are ready to discuss the location of the lamps 
within the zones. The fundamental principle which must always 
be kept in mind, is that lights used in that portion of the zone in 
front of the subject produce flat lighting* and as the lamps are 
moved into the portion of the zone to the side of the subject the 
result is contrasty lighting. (Figure 28.) 

For the average subject the main light will he located at an angle 
of about 45° from an imaginary line drawn from subject to camera 
and the lamp for secondary illumination will be located at approxi¬ 
mately the same angle on the opposite side of the camera. (Figure 
26.) The direction in which the subject faces in the various poses 
will, of course, dictate the position of the lamps. 

The light for secondary illumination should balance the lighting, 
and it must not be located so far to the side of the subject as to make 
it apparent that two separate and distinct sources of light are being 

*An important exception will be noted in the chapter on Hollywood Portraits. 


49 














Figure 28-A 

The result of having the secondary illumination or a reflector too far to the side is shown 
in B above. Notice that there appear to be two conflicting sources of illumination, and 
that the center area is poorly lit. When the lights are properly arranged the illumination 
diminishes gradually from highlight to shadow, as in A. 


used. Rather the secondary illumination should act as a continua¬ 
tion of the main light hy carrying the illumination further around 
the subject than would he possible with the main light alone. (Figure 
28-A.) 

With the subject standing or seated in the approximate pose 
desired, the lamps can be adjusted for height. (Figure 29.) When 
the 45° main light is properly located it will throw a shadow from 
the tip of the nose to the corner of the mouth. This also high-lights 
the cheek on the shadow side and gives form and roundness to the 
features. (Figure 30.) It is just as important and logical to consider 
the height of lamps in relation to the subject as a “zone” as it is to 
treat the floor layouts by the “zone” method. (Figure 31.) A great 
variety of effects are obtainable hy the intelligent manipulation of 


50 








Figure 28 


the height of the lamps. Flat lighting is the inevitable result of 
having lamps too low. Raising the lamp so that the light is projected 
downward from about a 45° angle gives a more pleasing effect. 
Elevation of the lamp above the 45° angle into the top of the zone 
produces contrast and often a striking picture but calls for sound 
judgment in the selection of subjects. Contrast lighting, if it gets 
out of control, is one of the most unsatisfactory methods of making 
a portrait. 

Chief among the causes of downright bad photography is flat 
lighting, most of which is entirely unnecessary. The principal 
offenders are photographers who work with more or less fixed light 


51 

















sources. When two lamps are used, one as a main and the other as 
a secondary light source, it is very easy to obtain a correctly lighted 
portrait by exercising care and judgment in moving each lamp to its 
proper position. 

The photographer who uses the zone method of locating lighting 
units has a decided advantage because the position of each lamp and 
the reason for it is clearly established in his mind. 

The type of subject must always determine the position of the 
lamps. For example, if the subject is a man of middle age with 
normal features, the main light source will be placed in the 45° 
zone and its height will be adjusted for a 45° lighting. The secondary 
light will he placed in a similar position in a zone on the opposite 


52 


















Figure 30 


53 









ft 


Figure 31 

side of the subject. Of course a variety of poses and lighting may 
be used for the average subject, but the position of the lamp in a 
given zone depends upon the subject type, man, woman or child, 
young or old, fat or thin, etc. The chief virtue of artificial light is 
the factor of control and this advantage should be utilized to the 
utmost in placing lighting units in position. If shadows are too 
pronounced, over-emphasizing the bone structure of the subject’s 
face, lower the main light and place it more directly in front of the 
subject. If the lighting is too flat, move one or both lamps toward 
the contrast region of the lighting zones. 

Background Lighting 

My earliest recollection of portrait studio backgrounds is of 
painted scenic effects rivaling theatre curtains in grandeur and 
lacking only the painted advertisements of local stores, hotels, and 
chop houses. Backgrounds in the modern studio are few in number 
and extremely simple. Pictorial effects, if attempted at alh are 
obtained by lighting. 

The function of background lighting is to separate the planes of 




54 













Figure 32 



the picture, improve the aerial perspective,* and establish the tone 
of the background. The camera sees with “one eye” (the lens) and 
no photograph can be three-dimensional unless it is made with 
two synchronized lenses and the prints, mounted a little distance 
apart, viewed with an optical instrument equipped with an eye¬ 
glass for each eye.** The tendency of the camera to reduce the 
scene to a single plane can be overcome to a certain extent by back¬ 
ground lighting. 

Background lighting should always be considered an essential 
part of the lighting scheme and just as important as lighting the 
subject. It must, however, be done with separate lighting units. 

In general, it is my practice to establish the tone of the back¬ 
ground, especially when white or very light tones are required, by 
means of the overhead strip. If it is only necessary to separate the 
subject from the background, a light from floor level is used. 

Backgrounds fall within three general tone classifications, black, 
white and neutral. The word “neutral” has a very broad interpre¬ 
tation among photographers but here it is intended to mean gray or 
a color that will have a similar tone value in the photograph. 

There is no lighting problem involved when a black background 
is used because a deep velvet black can only be obtained by the 
absence of light on the background. 

* The aerial perspective of painters is the expression of space by gradations of color, distinctness, 
etc. Webster’s Dictionary. 

^"Stereoscope. 


55 



If the background is heavy velvet or velour, it will not reflect 
light directed on the subject, particularly if the subject is separated 
from the background by a distance of about five feet. 

A gray background used in a studio where all of the light 
in the camera room is under control will furnish a range of tones 
from gray to almost black depending upon the amount of light 
projected upon it. A gray background cannot, of course, photograph 
darker than it actually is except in a room with every window 
covered, where there is no reflected light from walls, and where all 
of the light used on the subject is projected from equipment free 
from leaks or “spills” of light. Except in occasional instances when 
jet black is essential a gray background serves the purpose for all 
low key portraits. Illumination of the entire background is seldom 
required particularly for single figure portraits. (Figure 31.) The 
lighting, to separate the subject from the background, should be 
projected from a point as near the floor as possible. (Figure 31.) 
For this purpose a spotlight equipped with a table base is excellent. 
(Figure 32.) Some spotlights have demountable heads so that they 
can be set in a pivot on the base. An ordinary spotlight can be used 
for many background lighting effects but most units are mounted 
on pedestals which cannot be telescoped lower than four or five 
feet from the floor thus making it difficult to obtain the desired 
result. A round spot of light should not be projected on the back¬ 
ground directly behind the subject’s head for this suggests a “halo.” 

White Backgrounds 

White backgrounds are in keeping with the modern trend in 
architecture and interior decoration. The portrait photographer 
who has initiative and a knowledge of composition can create some 
beautiful portrait settings by using modern furniture properly 
lighted. (Figure 33.) An abundance of light projected evenly over 
the entire background surface is an absolute necessity. 

Whether the background is lighted from overhead strips, plat¬ 
form lights or floodlights on pedestals, the problem most likely to 
he encountered is “spotty” or “uneven” illumination. If the lamps 


56 



mm 




i§J 


%^:&e&VS?k 


'Wit^. 


■■■■■ •■ '• - 




Figure 33 


57 





























are too high or if the light is projected downward at a sharp angle 
the lower portion of the background will be insufficiently lighted, 
the negative under-exposed, and that portion of the print a dirty 
gray instead of white. A proper distribution of background lighting 
is shown in Figure 34. Small background surfaces such as screens 
can be lighted effectively enough with floodlights hut when a large 
surface is used there is likely to he trouble. The background in 
Figure 33 is twelve feet long and ten feet high, an area of 120 
square feet. The overhead strip with 7300 watts in ten reflectors 
provided uniform background lighting. An equal amount of light 
from floodlights or floor pedestals could not produce the same effect 
because, obviously, the lamps themselves would show in the picture 
if placed in the positions necessary to cover the background evenly. 


58 















Figure 35 



The background just described is large enough for standing 
figure portraits, groups and interiors with furniture and accessories. 
For large heads, home portraiture and pictures of children a portable 
background can be made of plywood and finished with kalsomine 
like the background described in Chapter 1. A panel four by five 
feet lighted by about four photoflood lamps will serve nicely for 
large heads and close-ups of children. Photoflood lamps are sug¬ 
gested because they produce the brilliant light necessary for white 
backgrounds with a minimum consumption of electric current. The 
one objection to photofloods is that they burn out very quickly. A 
large number of pictures can be made with a set of photofloods by 
burning them only for short periods. When photofloods are used 
the subject should always be lighted with separate lighting units so 
there is no necessity of burning background lights except during 
the actual exposure. 


59 













Back Lighting 

The term “back lighting” should never, under any circum¬ 
stances, be confused with background lighting for there is no 
connection whatsoever. “Back lighting” refers to light projected 
upon the subject and not upon the background. (Figure 35.) It also 
describes the kind of lighting effect that is obtained outdoors by 
“shooting” into the sun. It is one of the most popular of all lighting 
schemes in motion picture photography. For back lighting studio 
shots powerful spotlights or “Sunspots” are used on overhead plat¬ 
forms or from pedestals on the floor. In either case the light is 
projected downward at angles varying from about 45° to almost 
straight down but always from a source back of the subject or 
scene—therefore the expression “back lighting”. Back lighting is 
extensively used to separate the planes and to accent a particular 
part of the picture. It is often used to give relief to a figure posed 
against a dark or black background. 

Special Effects—Dramatic Lighting 

The basic principle of all spectacular effects is that a powerful 
beam of light is projected from an extreme angle. The success of 
many magnificent characterizations by the late Lon Chaney de¬ 
pended upon dramatic lighting. When the Hollywood hoys set out 
to really freeze the movie fans to their seats with horror they use 


60 












Figure 37 





Figure 38 



Figure 39 


63 







a concentrated light on the floor, directly below the actor’s face. 
(Figure 36.) This throws heavy shadows from the chin and nose 
upward and the eyes appear to be dilated. This is the technique used 
in some of the thrillers starring Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi. 

The advisability of using this kind of lighting is a question that 
each photographer must decide for himself but it is safe to say tliat 
the portrait subjects for whom dramatic lighting is ideal are not 
often encountered. Outside of theatrical circles dramatic lighting 
is more successful with women than with men but subjects should 
be selected with discretion. (Figure 37.) 

In order to produce deep shadows and sharp contrasts spotlights 
and “sunspots” are favored for the main light source in dramatic 
lighting. Frequently they are used on platforms almost directly 
overhead. The floor units are operated from the contrast region of 
the main light zone. 

Accent Lighting 

Studio portraits particularly of low key subjects should be 
relieved by accent lighting. Spotlights are commonly used for this 
purpose because they can be focused to high-light the hair, face or 
figure. Many subjects do not need this kind of lighting because some 
part of the costume may furnish just the accent required. For 
example, the low-key portrait of a man in Figure 38 needs no special 
lighting because the white collar serves the purpose. On the other 
hand the portrait of a blonde girl against a black background is 
greatly improved by a spotlight on ber hair. (Figure 39.) 

Accent lighting, properly managed, does not increase the tone 
scale of the picture and is of secondary importance in exposure 
calculations. Accent lighting does not lengthen the continuous scale 
but usually is an isolated note in a higher key. Above all it must 
be in harmony with the composition of the picture. 

In this connection let me warn the reader against the excessive 
use of spotlights. Although spotlights are essential equipment for 
the modern studio they are hy no means necessary for the making 
of every portrait. Small spotlights (250 to 500 watts) are exten¬ 
sively used for high-lighting the hair and “modeling” but tlie 


64 


2on e 




n 



Figure 40 


65 


















tendency is to use them too close to the subject. The larger spotlights 
are to be preferred because they have the necessary reserve power 
to work at a comfortable distance. All equipment of this kind 
throwing a concentrated beam of light must be kept far enough from 
the subject to avoid “burning up” (in the negative) the portion of 
the picture the accent light is projected upon. 

Co-ordination of Lighting 

It has been shown that each unit has a definite function in the 
lighting of a portrait and how by adjustment of the height and 
position in the zones flat, normal or contrast effects are obtained. 
Each step in building up the lighting of a picture has been considered 
in about the same order in which the lights should be placed in 
position on a set. Each type of unit and its use has been treated 
separately to avoid confusion. A composite drawing (Figure 40) 
made by combining the floor plan for each lighting effect described 
in the preceding pages, shows graphically the relation between the 
zones. The height of the lighting units in the various zones is also 


66 
















illustrated by a composite elevation sketch. (Figure 41.) The reader 
should not jump to hasty conclusions as a result of a cursory exami¬ 
nation of the two composite charts. The average portrait requires 
the manipulation of lamps in only two or three zones. No portrait 
however elaborate will include lights in every zone. Secondary illu¬ 
mination will, of course, be used in the majority of pictures, 45° 
lighting frequently and likewise some form of background lighting. 
But back-lighting, dramatic and various kinds of contrast lightings 
are usually the primary light source in character portraits and as 
such are practically independent of secondary illumination. It 
should be the constant effort of the photographer to simplify his 
lighting methods and to have a logical reason for the location of 
each lamp. With a clear understanding of basic principles it is not 
difficult to decide what lighting to use on a subject. 

Types of Subjects 

The principles involved in the selection of the lighting to be used 


67 












Figure 43 Elevation Zone Plan showing height of lamps for various subject types. 


for various types of subjects are few and easily understood. In 
general all thin faces and bodies require full illumination from the 
main light source with the lamps close to the flat lighting region of 
the floor plan zone. The same principle also applies to the height of 
the lamps; they must be low enough to eliminate hollow cheeks and 
unpleasant shadows. The secondary illumination on the shadow side 
should also be moved closer to very thin subjects. 

The full or “fat” face and figure must he lighted in exactly the 
opposite manner with the main light in the contrast zone and high 
enough to throw shadows under the cheek bones and chin. This rule, 
however, should not be applied too literally to children. 


68 














A floor plan chart (Figure 42) and an elevation chart (Figure 
43) with zones sub-divided will serve to illustrate the principle of 
lighting thin or fat subject types. Pug noses, flop ears, Andy Gump 
chins and other human frailties are frequent problems of the por¬ 
trait photographer. In most cases skillful posing is the remedy and 
a chapter is devoted to the subject. 

In conclusion let me impress upon the readers, especially ama¬ 
teurs, that there are no secrets in lighting. The laws and attributes 
of light are the same at all times and everywhere—it remains only 
for the photographer to master the principles and apply them to his 
advantage. The beginner should not be intimidated by high-sounding 
definitions or led astray by a system which may and usually does turn 
out to be merely one phase of lighting. 


69 


CHAPTER FOUR 


Exposure and Development 


Every subject or scene has a scale of tones and in order to produce 
a faithful likeness of the subject or scene in a print the photographer 
must, by the process of correct exposure and development, furnish 
himself with a negative with a scale of tones similar to the tone scale 
of the subject photographed. A clear understanding of tone repro¬ 
duction is a requisite if negative and print perfection is to he attained. 
The photographer must, by judgment based on experience, or by the 
use of an exposure meter, determine the tone scale of the subject so 
that the correct exposure and development can be used. In other 
words, films of known sensitivity, correctly exposed and developed 
will result in negatives with the correct scale of tones, provided the 
photographer has accurately analyzed the tone scale of the subject. 

The tone scale of the negative is represented by the relative 
density of the silver deposit on the various portions of the negative. 
The density of the silver deposit is in flirect proportion to the amount 
of light reflected from each part of the subject or scene to its respec¬ 
tive portion of the negative. It has long been known that the problem 
of the photographer is to reproduce a continuous range of tones from 
shadows to highlights and that, in order to accomplish this, correct 
exposure is essential. 

Early investigators established the fact that a given exposure 


70 



Figure 44 


produced a uniform density or deposit of silver when the plate was 
developed under uniform conditions. It was also found that the 
density of the negative could he increased in ratio to the amount of 
increased exposure. In other words, the density of the negative and, 
therefore, its printing quality could be determined in advance. 

One of the earliest methods of obtaining an accurate measure¬ 
ment of negative density was the “step wedge.” (Figure 44.) Step 
wedges were first used by Hurter and Driffield, who were pioneers in 
the study of tone reproduction and every student of the early history 
of photography is familiar with their work. 

Theoretically, a series of exposures increased in geometric ratio 
(1, 2, 4, 8, etc.) would result in a uniform increase in negative density 
for each successive increase in exposure. This law of constant density 
ratios must, however, be qualified with the explanation that each 
plate has a different scale of gradation, which is known as the “char¬ 
acteristic curve” of the plate. 

The characteristic curves of plates produced by different manu¬ 
facturers vary in shape. A typical curve (Figure 45) has a long 
straight center portion, a short curve at the top and a longer curve at 
the bottom. The curve at the bottom represents the under-exposure 
portion, the extended center portion the normal exposure and the 
curve at the top the over-exposure portion of the negative. It is, there¬ 
fore, obvious that the density ratio of a series of geometric exposures 
can only be uniform in the middle, or normal portion of the charac¬ 
ter curve of the negative. Each film or plate has its own characteristic 
curve, the exact nature of which is known to the manufacturer, who 
endeavors to maintain the qualities peculiar to a particular film in 
each successive batch of material produced. 


71 





Figure 45. Typical characteristic curve. 
Courtesy Weston Electrical Instrument Corp. 


The prevailing tendency among the better photographers is to 
work in the under-exposure band and the lower straight line portion 
of the characteristic curve of the film, because negatives produced 
by this method have superior printing quality. Manufacturers, 
influenced by this practice and as a result of their own research, are 
producing films and plates with a long “foot” or under-exposure 
curve. 

I have stated that the better photographers use the lower portion 
of the exposure curve or “foot” of the film. The reason for this is 
that photography is a black and white medium and the range of tones 
(shadow tones) in the under-exposure curve must be depended upon 
for the delineation of the form and texture of the subject matter 


72 























Figure 46 


73 







photographed. The painter has a decided advantage over photogra¬ 
phers in this respect because of the nature of color and the sensitivity 
of the eye to light of various wave lengths. An artist with an accurate 
knowledge of the wave length of light and the different color sensa¬ 
tions produced in the brain can often reproduce the subject matter 
with tone values which, reduced to monochrome, would be unsatis¬ 
factory for photographic purposes.* 

A fact which many portrait photographers apparently do not 
understand is that studio lighting is nearly always short scale lighting 
and negatives produced by artificial light are mostly short scale 
negatives. 

A short scale negative is one which produces a print with a short 
range of half-tones from the deepest black to gray or from pure white 
to gray. Short scale negatives are obtained by utilizing that portion 
of the exposure curve of the plate which most nearly corresponds to 
the tone scale when a short scale subject is photographed. To illus¬ 
trate this point I have selected two prints, both made from short scale 
negatives but with this important difference. Figure 46 is a “low 
key”* subject and Figure 47 is a “high key”** subject. 

It will be noted that the brightest highlights on the girl’s face in 
Figure 46 are gray and that there is a very short range of half-tones 
between the highlights and the deep black of the background. The 
negative from which this print was made has a scale of tones well 
within the under-exposure curve of the negative. 

The “high key” portrait (Figure 47) has an equally short range 
of tones hut on the opposite end of the exposure scale. The exposure 
was normal, but the lighting was intensified on the background in 
order to over-expose that portion of the negative. This means that the 
tone scale has a short range from normal into the over-exposure 
curve. 

*For further information on the subject of the sensitivity of the eye and photographic materials to 
color and light, the reader should read “The Photography of Colored Objects,” published by Eastman 
Kodak Company. 

*A “low key” subject is one in which the tones range from gray to black. 

**A “high key” subject has a range of tones from gray to white with no shadow tones darker than 
gray. 


74 




Figure 47 


75 









Both long and short scale negatives are produced in outdoor 
photography. Many negatives made hy daylight, on overcast days, 
are as short in tone scales as studio negatives made with flat lighting. 
The majority of outdoor scenes, however, have a long scale of tones 
and in many instances the range of gradations from highlight to 
shadows is actually beyond the capacity of the plate. 

Exposure of the Long Scale Subject 

When the photographer is working outdoors with an extremely 
long scale subject the first problem is to correctly analyze the tone 
scale. If there is reason to believe that the tone scale is beyond the 
capacity of the film, it will he necessary to decide whether the ex¬ 
posure will be made to preserve detail in the shadows or whether 
shadow detail will be deliberately sacrificed to preserve the high¬ 
lights. In most outdoor portraits the photographer will elect to pre¬ 
serve the flesh tones and to obtain the most effective rendering of the 
costume, at the same time attempting to retain as much detail as 
possible in the shadows without over-exposing the highlights too 
much. 

Exposure calculations in portrait photography are comparatively 
simple, because the subject or model is always the central point of 
interest and the exposure must be correct for the subject often at the 
expense of the background or surroundings. The old saying “expose 
for the shadows and let the highlights take care of themselves” was 
all right for the pioneer photographers, because the plates they used 
were so slow that under-exposure was a real problem. Exposure 
meters, capable of accurately measuring the range of tones from 
shadows to highlights were unknown and, therefore, it was good 
policy to play safe and expose for the shadows. 

The modern photo-electric meters are unquestionably superior 
as a means of determining exposure. Manufacturers publish exhaus¬ 
tive instructions for the correct use of the instruments and those who 
have occasion to work under unfavorable light conditions will find 
it profitable to study the data supplied with the meter. Many pho¬ 
tographers working in the studio day after day with the same lighting 
equipment, develop the ability to judge light values with remarkable 


76 


accuracy. I use a meter in the studio only for unusual lighting effects, 
hut I invariably take the meter for outdoor photographs, where I 
cannot control light conditions. 

Outdoor portraits are usually made under one or the other of two 
lighting conditions, with dull overcast skies or in brilliant sunlight. 

Negatives made in the open but with an overcast sky or in the 
shade of a building will have a comparatively short scale of tones. 
My method of working under these conditions is to use the under¬ 
exposure curve so as to obtain strong shadows and the meter is used 
to check the shadows to avoid under-exposure of shadow detail. 

Study of manuals for the use of exposure meters reveals the fact 
that most of the instructions refer to scenes having an extreme range 
of tones indicating the importance of this problem. These scenes are, 
of course, all or partly in brilliant sunlight, and if there are deep 
shadows also, the range of tones may be too long for the negative in 
which case it will be necessary to measure the light value of both 
highlights and shadows in order to decide what exposure will produce 
the most satisfactory negative. 

For outdoor portraits where the contrast between highlights and 
shadows is extreme, I use a method which is comparatively simple. 
If observation indicates that over-exposure of the highlights and 
halation is likely, I measure the light value of the brightest highlights 
and set the “0” (“0” indicates the point beyond which all objects 
will be over-exposed) on the number indicated by the meter.* Next, 
I measure the light value of the deepest shadow in which I wish to 
record detail. If the meter reading in the shadows does not fall below 
“U” (below which all objects will be under-exposed) when the dial 
is set for “0” on the brightest highlights, the final step is to determine 
whether or not the indicated exposure will result in a satisfactory 
reproduction of the flesh tones of the subject. If the indicated ex¬ 
posure for the flesh tones is materially different from the exposure 
indicated for the brightest highlights and deepest shadows, it will be 
necessary for the photographer to decide whether a more pleasing 


;I Weston Universal Exposure Meter, made by Weston Electrical Instrument Corp., Newark, N. J. 


77 



portrait will result from under-exposure or over-exposure of some 
portions of the scene. 

When portraits are made in deep shade, shutter speeds are also 
to be considered. Shutter speeds of one-half second are about the 
maximum for adults and one-fifth second is very long for children. 
Under these circumstances it is sometimes advisable to save the flesh 
tones and detail in the highlights at the expense of the shadows. 

Above all the photographer should constantly remember that 
negatives of good printing quality are the result of good lighting and 
correct exposure rather than of darkroom work. 

Printing Papers 

Assuming that the subject-scene has been correctly analyzed and, 
further, that the negative has been correctly exposed and developed, 
we are now ready to consider the printing paper which will yield a 
perfect print. 

Photographic papers have “characteristic curves” which corres¬ 
pond to the characteristic curve of negatives. A perfect print 
should result from the use of a printing paper having the same scale 
as the negative. A short scale negative requires a paper with a short 
tone scale, and a long scale negative requires a paper having a long 
tone scale. 

Manufacturers designate the tone scale capacities of their print¬ 
ing papers in various ways, but the most common method of describ¬ 
ing the gradation of a paper is by specifying its contrast qualities. 
The softer the paper the longer the scale of tones or degrees of con¬ 
trast between the highlights and shadows. Therefore, a “soft” paper 
is the logical choice for a “long scale” negative. A hard or contrasty 
paper has a comparatively short scale of tones and should he used 
for short scale negatives. 

Negatives having the best printing quality are obtained by using 
the long “foot” or under-exposure band of the characteristic curve 
of the negative. Even if only a small portion of the exposure curve 
be used a negative may, never-the-less, be perfect for the reproduc¬ 
tion of a short scale subject. 


78 


It is an extremely important point that this rule does not hold 
true in connection with the exposure curves of printing papers. A 
perfect print can only be obtained when all or nearly all of the tone 
scale of the paper is used in making the print. 

The reason for this is obvious. To obtain deep, velvety blacks we 
must utilize the deepest tones of which the paper is capable, and the 
whites must be clean and free from muddy effects, which are the 
unfailing result of not using the entire scale of the paper to the pure 
white of the paper stock. 

The portrait photographer whose negatives are produced in the 
studio by artificial light should obtain negatives of uniform printing 
quality. Under such conditions one or two grades of paper (in two 
or three stock colors) should be ample. Making negatives for a 
particular paper is the most efficient way to produce fine prints. Some 
photographers waste an endless amount of time scurrying about to 
find a few sheets of some special kind of paper so that they can make 
a print from a negative which has been improperly exposed and 
developed and often doctored with various intensifiers or reducers. 

Negative Development 

Before proceeding with the subject of development, let me ex¬ 
plain that this is not intended as a general treatise on all phases of 
negative development. For our purpose it is sufficient to assume that 
negatives are tank developed at a standard temperature. There are 
many factors affecting development, including room temperature, 
variations in emulsions, agitation of film during development, fresh¬ 
ness of the developer, and others that space will not permit us to 
discuss, but which have been treated elsewhere at great length by 
competent authorities. 

Negatives with a short scale of tones in the normal and under¬ 
exposure curve of the film should be developed with the standard 
formulas of the manufacturer or in a developer which, by experience, 
the photographer knows will produce negatives of good printing 
quality. Using the under-exposure curve of the plate should not he 
interpreted to mean that the negatives are under-timed or that the 


79 


exposures are inadequate. A correctly exposed negative of a “low 
key” subject, with a tone scale entirely on the under-exposure curve 
may be “normal” insofar as development is concerned. 

In the development of “high key” negatives proceed with caution 
especially where Panchromatic film is used. The reason for this 
warning is that “high key” negatives look so black when inspected 
by the transmitted light of the green Safelight that there is a great 
temptation to take them out of the developer before the process is 
completed. The charm of the “high key” portrait depends upon the 
delicate tone scale between pure white and the light grays. If the 
negative, assuming that it is correctly exposed, is under-developed, 
the white tones will be degraded and “dirty” in the print. In order 
to obtain clean, white tones in the final print it is necessary to use 
enough light to literally burn the background portion of the negative 
black with silver deposit. 

Developing time should he increased 20 to 25% above normal 
and those of limited experience often misjudge the negative because 
the overexposed background portion becomes black and almost 
opaque during the first minutes of development. Test negatives, cor¬ 
rectly exposed and developed for varying periods, are well-worth the 
time and expense of making and they should he kept in the darkroom 
as a standard for comparison after each batch of negatives has been 
developed. 

Development of Long Scale Subjects 

The photographer who has occasion to make outdoor portraits 
will find that many scenes have a tone scale so long as to present a 
most difficult problem in exposure and development. An excellent 
example of this is a girl in a white dress, posed in the deep shadows 
of a large tree, with brilliant sunlight filtering through the tree and 
on the grass in the background. (Figure 48.) The extreme contrast 
of this scene is also partly due to the fact that it was late in the after¬ 
noon and the sun was low enough to produce a powerful back-lighting 
effect. 

It is conceded that the problems of exposure and development 
presented by a scene of the type described above could be avoided 



Figure 48 


81 








by the selection of a more favorable location for a portrait. But, in 
view of the fact that daylight cannot be controlled, it remains for 
the ambitious photographer to find ways to utilize the powerful 
contrast of sunlight to produce striking and unusual photographs. 

Exposure is for the purpose of recording the image and preparing 
the film for development. Every experienced photographer knows 
that before exposed film is developed, there is no visible evidence of 
exposure. It is not until the negative has been in the developing 
solution for a short time that the image appears. A fundamental truth 
which, though elementary, should be clearly understood by the 
reader is that the portion of the negative which received the most 
exposure to light (the highlights) always appears first. The next por¬ 
tion of the image to appear is the half tones, the order of their appear¬ 
ance being in direct ratio to their exposure. Finally, shadow details 
which have received enough exposure to affect the emulsion appear. 

The process of development causes a deposit of silver on the 
negative in proportion to the amount of exposure. By reducing the 
accelerator content of the developer the shadows and half-tones have 
an opportunity to build up before the highlights become hopelessly 
opaque. 

To facilitate this method of development, I use a three solution 
developer.* The normal quantity of solution A containing the de¬ 
veloping agent (Pyro Soda or Pyro Metol) and solution B (Sodium 
Sulphite) are mixed with the usual amount of water in the tank. If, 
for example, the formula requires 8 ounces each of A, B, and C and 
water to make one gallon, all of the ingredients except C, Sodium 
Carbonate, (the accelerator) are added to the water in the tank. 

Only 25% of the normal amount of solution C is added, and the 
films are developed (Panchromatic in total darkness) for ten to 
fifteen minutes with the low accelerator content. The remainder of 
solution C has, however, been measured out into three portions 
before development starts and each portion is added at intervals of 
five to ten minutes each. In order to facilitate the handling of the 

"‘Eastman D1 or Eastman D7. 


82 



Figure 49 



accelerator, a frame to hold three glass tubes has been prepared. 
(Figure 49.) This device can be manipulated in total darkness and 
only one precaution is required—when each successive hatch of 
accelerator is poured into the tank, be sure to agitate the films to 
insure the thorough absorption of the contents. If negatives are not 
lifted out of the solution during development, the danger of fog is 
minimized. But when negatives are developed for prolonged periods, 
it is advisable to increase the Potassium Bromide. One dram of 10% 
solution of Potassium Bromide to the gallon of mixed developer 
should be ample. If the emulsion has not been acted upon by light, 
there will be no deposit of silver. No amount of development will 
rectify mistakes which result in under-exposure, because the process 
of development will not add detail where none existed as a result of 
exposure. 

The longer the period of development, the greater will be the 
density of silver deposited, but the deposit will always be in propor¬ 
tion to the exposure of the different parts of the negative. 

Highlights might be said to develop at high speed, half tones at 
an intermediate speed, and shadows at a low speed. It naturally 
follows that the longer the process of development continues, the 


83 



greater the distance between the highlights and shadows and, there¬ 
fore, the longer the tone spacing in the half tones between. 

Our principal problem in long scale negative development is to 
prevent the highlights which develop at a high rate of speed from 
arriving at the destination (complete development) before the 
shadow development which progresses at a comparatively low rate 
of speed has been completed. One method of accomplishing this is 
to reduce the accelerator ingredient of the developer and to increase 
the developing time to compensate for this change in the formula. 

Developer formulae contain four principal ingredients—the de¬ 
veloping agent, preservative, an accelerator, and a chemical to pre¬ 
vent fog, usually Potassium Bromide. When the accelerator is mixed 
with the developing agent, and films placed in the developer, it imme¬ 
diately becomes active, and the deposit of silver starts to take place 
after the elapse of a few seconds. All developer formulas specify a 
quantity of each ingredient for normal development, but the normal 
amount of accelerator causes the development of the highlights to 
proceed too rapidly for the extremely long scale subject. 

This method of development can he used with any developer in 
which the accelerator ingredient is added as a separate unit at the 
time of development. There are many good developers, and it is not 
my intention to suggest that the formula I use should be adopted by 
other photographers. 

I have described this process in every detail at the risk of making 
it appear involved and cumbersome. Actually, it is very simple, and 
once the technique is understood, the photographer can go about his 
business except for an occasional agitation of the films. The reader 
can judge the results for himself by studying carefully the print 
(Figure 48) which was made from a negative developed by the 
reduced carbonate method. 


84 


CHAPTER FIVE 


Preparation For a Portrait 


Advertising and illustrative photography has made enormous 
progress in recent years, due to the intelligent use, by commercial 
men, of facilities that are available to every photographer. That por¬ 
trait photographers have not made comparable progress is, I believe, 
obvious even to the casual observer. 

Modern illustrative photographers know that preparation for a 
picture is just as important as the actual exposure of the film. Sets 
are often built from artists’ drawings, every detail to scale. The com¬ 
position of the finished picture has been determined in advance. 
Costumes are decided upon, models are engaged, and every person 
having a part in the making of the photograph understands what he 
or she is expected to do. 

The portrait photographer may argue that the commercial pho¬ 
tographer can do all of these things because some rich advertiser is 
standing by, check book in hand. 

The kind of preparation advocated for the portrait photographer 
does not require an investment of money at all, but merely a willing¬ 
ness to apply some of the methods that others have used with success. 
The only concession I ask of the reader, at the moment, is to grant 
that there is a difference between a “picture” and a “portrait” as 
defined in the opening chapter of this book. 


85 




The first step in preparation for a portrait is the preliminary 
interview with the subject. 

Most interviews of this kind will be with women because they 
have more photographs made than men; and, of course, they always 
handle such matters for the children in the family. If young children 
are to be photographed, it is not necessary, or even desirable, to have 
them present at the preliminary interview for reasons which will be 
explained in the chapter on “Portraits of Children.” Advance inter¬ 
views with men are not easily arranged and in most cases are limited 
to a discussion of the time, the place, and the price. 

The first question a woman asks is, “What shall I wear?” It is not 
to be expected that she will go out and buy wearing apparel for the 
occasion. Most women like to discuss costumes and they usually 
describe the contents of their wardrobes so that the photographer 
can suggest the most suitable garments. Various styles, fabrics and 
colors of garments for portraiture will be discussed more fully in the 
chapter on “Portraits of Women.” 

The discussion of questions that are uppermost in her mind 
insures a successful preliminary interview. But there is a psycho¬ 
logical aspect that is just as important to both subject and photog¬ 
rapher as all the talk about such routine matters as costume, make-up, 
and other plans for the portrait. Properly managed, the interview 
will convince the subject that a real portrait is being planned. The 
photographer will create confidence in his ability and when the por¬ 
traits are made he will have the cooperation of an interested subject. 
The importance of this cannot be overestimated. Whether a portrait 
is made for art or for money, it can only be successful to the extent 
that the photographer has the cooperation of the subject. 

There is no reason, that I have been able to discover, why a 
photographic portrait should not be as successful in its own field as 
a portrait executed by a competent portrait painter. The qualities 
that distinguished the works of great masters of portrait painting, 
particularly Holbein, were the minute delineation of form and a 
psychological presentation of the character of the subject. Surely 
the camera in the hands of one who has a true conception of its pos- 


86 


sibilities can equal, and often surpass, the portraits by moderns of 
the impressionist school, engrossed as they are in the superficial 
representation of form, novel arrangement, and color effects. 

But mere representation of the physical object of the picture is 
not sufficient; if it were, the world would be full of portrait artists. 
A true portrait must have a psychological quality which can be recog¬ 
nized as belonging solely to a particular person. We cannot photo¬ 
graph a man’s soul, his temperament, or his character, but only their 
outward manifestations. In youth, the features begin to take the 
form that they hear through life, hut the emotions, moulded by 
environment, have not fixed the sensitive facial expressions or the 
lines by which we judge character. That is the reason that people past 
middle age are to be preferred as models for character studies. 

The keen observer will find many character lines that have been 
so deeply etched by time and circumstance that even the retoucher’s 
pencil cannot conceal them. That these tell-tale marks may reveal, 
for example, greed and hypocrisy, quite as unmistakably as other 
lines indicate nobility of character, is inevitable. 

I am convinced that a moralist can no more be a great portrait 
artist than he can lift himself by his boot straps. He is committed, at 
all times and everywhere, to a policy of judging his fellows by his 
own standards. His kind is prominently identified with all attempts 
to regulate, by force if necessary, the lives of men and to prescribe 
what they shall drink and wear. I do not argue that it is necessary 
to be a libertine or to practice the excesses sometimes attributed to 
artists. But the portrait artist or photographer must be entirely free 
from moral prejudice and have an attitude of tolerance and liberality 
toward his fellow men. 

The question as to what traits of character should he emphasized 
and what should he subdued in a portrait must be determined by the 
photographer, and every subject presents a different problem. The 
success of a portrait as a work of creative art, or as a salable picture, 
depends upon the correct solution of this problem. 

If. for example, a woman has a particularly sensuous face, it is 
usually indicative of her character; and she will probably prefer a 


87 


voluptuous portrait. As a matter of fact, this type of woman, of whom 
fortunately there are a minority, simply liasn t the intellectual 
capacity to appreciate or even understand anything hut a sensuous 
picture. The psychological qualities of some portraits should be 
obvious, while others should be extremely subtle. 

A good illustration of this point would be found in many photo¬ 
graphs or magazine advertisements in which the wealth and power 
of a successful man is indicated by the background and furnishings 
used in the picture. This is what I mean by establishing the psycho¬ 
logical quality of a picture in an obvious manner. Steichen created 
a similar impression in a subtle manner in his portraits of famous 
men which frequently appeared in “Vanity Fair.” He created his 
effects largely by the dignity and power of the lighting used in his 
portraits. 

The photographer who makes only large head pictures deprives 
himself of the great psychological possibilities of the figure and 
costume. 

I refer to costume in the sense of everyday wearing apparel and 
not theatrical costume. 

One of the purposes of the preliminary interview is to eliminate 
any prejudice the subject may have against posing in a particular 
kind of costume, such as evening clothes, for example. A few discreet 
questions will reveal the extent and quality of the subject’s wardrobe, 
and she should be instructed carefully in regard to what garments she 
is to bring when the portraits are made. Unless there is a definite 
understanding, or if the matter is left to her judgment, she is sure to 
leave the very costume most desired at home. 

If Panchromatic make-up is decided upon, she need not apply 
any make-up before leaving home; in fact, a face freshly washed with 
soap and water is preferred. Warn the subject against having any¬ 
thing done with the hair on the day the photographs are to be made. 
The hair should not he washed within the two days prior to the 
appointment. Two possible disasters can he avoided by having an 
understanding about the hair. One is that the subject will go to her 


88 



regular hairdresser and request a special coiffure for a photograph 
and the other is that she will go to an entirely new hairdresser and 
ask for the same thing. This simple request seems to arouse some 
strange instinct in hairdressers, for the results are nearly always 
deplorable. Among all the things that should not be done, a new or 
unusual style of hairdress heads the list. 

The Importance of Unlimited Time 

There is one thing in connection with every appointment that I 
insist upon having definitely understood, and that is that plenty of 
time must be allowed for the sitting. I will not make an appointment 
with a subject who has conflicting appointments or who attempts to 
impose a time limit. People are never charitable enough to admit 
their portraits are not satisfactory because they failed to allow the 
photographer sufficient time. It is my experience that portraits are 
successful in proportion to the control the photographer exercises 
over the factors that enter into making the picture. 

If the subject is allowed to “run the show” the photographer has 
only himself to blame for the inevitable failure of the portrait. 


89 


CHAPTER SIX 


Make-Up 


The motion picture industry is to be thanked for perfecting the 
art of photographic make-up. The methods described in this hook 
apply to “Panchromatic Make-up” because cosmetics prepared for 
use with Panchromatic film are used. Make-up serves two separate 
and distinct purposes; to create character effects and to cover 
freckles, blemishes and skin defects. In portrait photography we 
are interested in character make-up only to the extent that theatrical 
methods may be applied to the correction of structural and other 
faults in the subject’s features. Theatrical and motion picture make¬ 
up is frequently used for the express purpose of changing the charac¬ 
ter and appearance of the subject hut in portrait photography this is 
the very thing we wish to avoid. All structural corrective measures 
must be co-ordinated in the step by step application of the cosmetics 
so as to harmonize with the skin defect covering qualities of the 
make-up. 

The principal advantage of make-up is that when it is properly 
used retouching is reduced to a minimum. The development of the 
art of photographic make-up can, as a matter of fact, he traced 
directly to the fact that motion picture film cannot he retouched 
because the negatives are too small. The make-up artist is one of the 
most important technicians in the motion picture studio because the 
slightest imperfection in make-up is exaggerated when the film is 
projected. The reader can get a good idea of the enormous enlarge- 


90 


ment of motion picture negatives from the following example. A 
single negative of motion picture film is called a “frame” and it has 
a picture aperture of 0.825"x0.600".* The projection of this negative 
on a screen 20.3 x14.8' in size represents a magnification of 295 
diameters .** This almost unbelievable enlargement of motion pic¬ 
ture film is convincing evidence of the skill employed in the applica¬ 
tion of make-up. Although portrait negatives are never enlarged as 
much as motion picture film, the same care must be devoted to make¬ 
up because details which escape the eye due to the almost constant 
motion of the screen image are easily discernible in the photographic 
print. 

Selection of Subjects for Make-up 

It is not the province of the portrait photographer to create char¬ 
acter but to record that which already exists. Make-up is not magic 
and the mere use of it does not insure a successful portrait. It should 
be regarded as one of the aids in the making of a portrait, to be used 
for selected portrait subjects when there is definite need for it. 

Make-up should be used with discretion, if at all, on very young 
girls and women past middle age. A modified make-up for young 
girls will be described later. Many women, faced with the problem of 
fading beauty, are anxious to be “glorified” but too often this only 
results in making her the laughing stock of her friends, and exposes 
the photographer to ridicule. Make-up does not remove or cover 
deep wrinkles and it is absolutely useless to attempt it. 

Panchromatic make-up is used for motion picture photography 
by both men and women, the method of application being basically 
the same. Except for professional purposes I cannot recommend it 
for men. The average man would not submit to the application of 
powder and lip rouge without first being securely bound and gagged. 

Qualities of Light 

Before the introduction of panchromatic film a sign was often 
displayed in photographers’ dressing rooms with the admonition, “do 
not use lip-stick or rouge.” The reason for this warning was that the 

*Bausch & Lomb Optical Co. 

**The focal length of projection lenses and the area of screens vary accordingly to the size of the 
theater in which they are to be used. The example given shows the size of screen image when a projec¬ 
tion lens of 5 . 25 " focal length is used at 130 feet from the screen. 


91 





Figure 50. Color blind film Figure 51. Color blind film 

and daylight. and Mercury Vapour light. 


color blind film then in use lacked sensitivity to red and as a result 
lip-stick photographed almost black. (Figure 50.) Red objects were 
badly underexposed in the negative and as a result went black in the 
print. Cheeks looked hollow when rouge was used with color-blind 
film and daylight illumination. 

Those who have an opportunity should examine the skin of the 
average person under the light from a Mercury Vapour lamp. The 
ultra-violet light reveals a veritable network of veins and tiny blood 
vessels under the skin. These and the freckles and blemishes on the 
surface of the skin when photographed with color blind film are 
actually exaggerated because tliey print almost black. (Figure 51.) 
The desire of photographers to have freckles and other defects re¬ 
moved from negatives probably started the weird excesses since prac¬ 
ticed by retouchers. 

Light that is very strong in blue (Mecury-Vapour) tends to em¬ 
phasize skin defects and light that is strong in red (Mazda lamps) 
minimizes them. Daylight contains both blue and red rays but Mazda 


92 







lamps are superior in quality for portrait lighting. Daylight contains 
too much blue for certain subjects even with Panchromatic film. This 
is especially noticeable with fair complexions and heavy freckles. 
An interesting comparison between the results obtained with color¬ 
blind film and Panchromatic film with daylight from a skylight is 
shown in Figures 52-53. It is frequently necessary to use a yellow 
filter* to absorb the excessive blue rays. 

Another way to analyze the difference between daylight and 
Mazda light is to think of daylight as “white” light because of the 
preponderance of blue and Mazda light as “yellow” light because of 
the dominance of red. The yellow filter mentioned above absorbs blue 
rays and permits red rays to pass so that the light after passing 
through the filter becomes yellow. In other words Mazda lamps pro¬ 
vide approximately the same color correction as a yellow filter, and 
with Panchromatic film the skin defects that require retouching are 
reduced to a minimum. (Figure 54.) 

*Wratten Filter K1 or K2. 


93 






Figure 54. Panchromatic Figure 55. Panchromatic 

film, no make-up. film, with make-up. 


When sound was introduced in motion pictures Panchromatic 
film was already in general use. One of the first problems encoun¬ 
tered was that the microphones picked up the “hum” and other noises 
from “arc” lights so the entire industry turned at once to Mazda 
lamps. Panchromatic make-up as it is used today has been perfected 
for use with Mazda lamps and under these conditions the most satis¬ 
factory results are obtained. (Figure 55.) 

Equipment for Make-up 

The make-up room should have a dressing table equipped with a 
good mirror and special illumination. It may be built into the wall 
of the dressing room or it may be a detached piece of furniture. The 
lights of an ordinary room are entirely unsatisfactory because they 
seldom provide equal illumination of both sides of the face which is 
necessary if the make-up is to he properly applied. 

The dressing table (Figure 56) in my studio is similar in design 
to those used in Hollywood make-up rooms and it is a built-in feature 


94 




of the dressing room. It has a vertical row of 25 Watt lamps on each 
side and a row across the top, all behind ground glass. The table is 36 
inches wide and the top row of lamps is 36 inches above the surface 
of the table. When the subject is seated directly in front of the table 
there are no cast shadows on the face to interfere with the application 
of the cosmetics. 

The table shown in Figure 56 was built in my workshop to fit the 
available space in the dressing room. Anyone skilled in the use of 
carpenter tools can build a similar piece of furniture. I would sug¬ 
gest that the vertical rows of lamps be kept at least 30 inches apart, 
otherwise the dimensions of the table can be varied as much as 
desired. 

A rubberized apron should be provided for the subject to wear 
during the application of make-up to protect the clothing. A head 
band should also be used to keep powder out of the hair. The follow¬ 
ing items are required for applying cosmetics 


95 











Brushes for Lining colors 
Dermatograph pencil (for eyebrows) 

Powder puff 
Face powder brush 

Professional make-up catalogs list a complete range of colors in 
grease paints, lining colors, rouge and powders for Screen and Stage 
but only a few colors (Panchromatic) are necessary for the portrait 
studio. The various colors are numbered and all materials should be 
ordered by number. 

The following cosmetics are required for the complete make-up: 




Grease Paint 

This is the foundation of all make-up and the base for lining 
colors, rouge and powder. The Panchromatic scale of grease paint 
colors ranges from light tan to deep brown. The makers will, upon 
request, recommend the color by number for blondes, brunettes and 
other subject types. 


Lining Colors 

The portrait photographer will use Lining colors principally for 
eye shadow and to accentuate some features and subdue others. They 
are used for character make-up and to make highlights, shadows, 
wrinkles and other special effects for screen and stage. 


Moist Rouge 

Packed in paste form and applied with a Lining Brush, Moist 
Rouge is used instead of Lipstick. The use of Moist Rouge applied 
with a brush is recommended. 

Liquid Make-up 

Made in the same colors as grease paint. Liquid Make-up is used 
on the neck and shoulders to blend with the face tones. 


Powder 

Colors to match the various numbers of grease paint and liquid 
make-up must he used. 

Mascara 

The final touch in make-up. Artificial eyelashes are extensively 


96 





used in motion picture photography, but they are not recommended 
for the average portrait subject. 

Cold Cream (to remove make-up) 

It is my suggestion that those who are interested write to reputable 
manufacturers of make-up materials for information in regard to the 
proper colors and methods of application. The reader is warned that 
the information given here in regard to numbers of various items may 
become obsolete due to possible changes in cosmetics. At the time this 
hook goes to press, Max Factor* recommends the following items, by 
number, for various subject types. 


YOUNG WOMEN 

Blonde Brunette 


Patichro. Foundation 

27 

26 

Face Powder 

27 

26 

Liner Color 

21 

22 

Masque 

Brown 

Brown 

Eyebrow Pencil 

Brown 

Brown 

Moist Rouge 

390A-Medium 

MEN 

390A-Medium 


Blonde 

Brunette 

Panchro. Foundation 

28 

29 

44 Face Powder 

28 

29 

64 Liner Color 

22 

22 

44 Masque 

Brown 

Brown 

44 Eyebrow Pencil 

Brown 

Brown 

44 Moist Rouge 

7 

ELDERLY TYPES 

7 


W omen 

Men 

Panchro. Foundation 

25 

26 

44 Face Powder 

25 

26 

44 Liner Color 

21 

21 

44 Masque 

Brown 

Brown 

44 Eyebrow Pencil 

Brown 

Brown 

44 Moist Rouge 

8 

CHILDREN 

7 


Female 

Male 

Panchro. Foundation 

22 

24 

44 Face Powder 

22 

24 

44 Liner Color 

21 

21 

44 Masque 

Brown 

Brown 

44 Eyebrow Pencil 

Brown 

Brown 

44 Moist Rouge 

390A-Light 

7 

For extreme types the numbers may vary to suit the conditions. 


-Max Factor & Co., Hollywood, Calif. 


97 



Elizabeth Arden* has a complete line of screen and stage make-up 
and her cosmetics have been used in numerous motion picture pro¬ 
ductions. The foundation colors are numbered from 1 to 10, and 
powders, (including liquid powders) are obtainable in correspond¬ 
ing numbers to match the foundation colors. 

I prefer Foundation No. 6 for blondes and No. 5 for brunettes. 
Some make-up artists use No. 5 for blondes and No. 6 for brunettes. 
For best results, however, the make-up room should contain a com¬ 
plete range of foundation numbers, the lighter ones for high lighting 
and the darker ones for blending and corrective work. The powder 
should correspond to the main foundation hut one number lighter 
in color should be used for thin faces and one number darker is 
recommended for fat faces. Two lipstick colors are required—No. 21 
“Studio Light” and No. 22 “Studio Medium.” Eye shadow should 
be applied with Screen Liners No. 1 Light Brown and No. 2 Dark 
Brown. Black Mascara and black eyebrow pencils should he pro¬ 
vided, but brown will be used most frequently. 

Application of the Make-up 

The face must be scrupulously clean before the make-up is ap¬ 
plied. Soap and water should be used for the purpose. Cold cream 
will remove street make-up quickly and effectively, but unless the 
process is closely supervised, cleansing the face may develop into a 
problem of how to get rid of the cold cream. If cold cream is used 
every trace of it must be removed. 

The subject should remove her dress, particularly if it has a high 
neck line, so that it will not become soiled by cosmetics. A kimono 
or robe should be provided for the subject to wear while the make-up 
is being applied. The rubberized apron should be worn over the robe. 
Most garments made for the purpose have snap fasteners so that they 
fit rather closely around the subject’s neck. If a head band is not 
available a towel can be bound around the subject’s head. Thus 
attired, with street make-up removed, the subject is ready for the first 
step in the application of cosmetics. (Figure 57.) Each step in the 

^Elizabeth Arden, Screen Stage Make-up Laboratories, Hollywood, Calif. 


98 




Figure 57. Without Make-up. Figure 58. Application of Grease Paint. 


make-up process should be performed in exactly the same order in 
which it is described here. 

Applying the Foundation—Grease Paint* 

From a tube of grease paint of the proper color, squeeze about 
one-half inch into the palm of one hand. With a circular motion of 
the fingers of the other hand distribute the grease paint evenly over 
the palm of the hand like an artist spreads pigments on a palette with 
a palette knife. Spreading grease paint thinly over the palm of the 
hand aids in smooth, even application, when it is transferred to the 
subject’s face. 

Grease paint positively must be used sparingly or the entire make-up 
will be a failure. 

With the tips of the fingers deposit small dots of grease paint all 
over the subject’s face until it acquires a freckled appearance. 
(Figure 58.) Make sure that these little dabs of grease paint extend 

*Grease paints formerly required constant dipping of the finger tips in cold water to smooth out. 
Some grease paints were used after an application of cold cream. With improved cosmetics these 
methods are unnecessary. 


99 





under the chin to the hase of the neck, also in the ears and behind the 
ears. 

With grease paint distributed over the face the process of smooth¬ 
ing it out can begin. Some experts favor starting at the point of the 
chin and working upward while others recommend working from 
the center of the face outward. I have found it expedient to follow 
the contours of the face from the nose and chin, blending the grease 
paint thinly and evenly with an outward stroke of the finger tips. Do 
not overlook the corners of the mouth or the region about the nostrils 
and be sure to work the grease paint far enough into the edge of the 
hair to cover the exposed portion of the scalp. Cover the back of the 
neck down to the shoulders. (Figure 59.) 

Thus far the make-up procedure is identical for all subjects ex¬ 
cept that the co/or of the grease paint foundation is selected accord¬ 
ing to the subject type. 

Eye Shadow 

Shadow should be used on the eye lids, never under the eyes. If 
the lighting is correct, there will he a natural shadow under the eyes 
in nearly every pose; in fact a little retouching may he necessary to 
soften the natural shadow. 

A point to be remembered is that eye shadow, like the grease paint 
foundation, is to be covered with powder and it should be a little 
darker than the tone desired when the make-up is complete. In 
other words, Panchromatic powder and grease paint is always lighter 
than the eye shadow and lip rouge so allowance must be made for a 
loss of contrast when the powder is applied. 

Lining colors for the eye shadow are designated by number for 
use with certain subject types and particular grease paint colors. 

Start the eye shadow by placing a tiny spot of the proper lining 
color just above the eyelashes. Patting carefully with the finger tips 
is more effective than rubbing because there is less disturbance to 
the grease paint hase. The shadow should he blended upward towards 
the eyebrows and outward towards the side of the face. (Figure 60.) 
Some make-up artists use brushes starting with a thin line of color 


100 




Figure 59. Grease paint smoothed out. 


Figure 60. Eye shadow and lipstick applied. 


just above the eyelashes and working up and outward. The majority, 
however, use the finger tips and I believe that to be the better method. 

The darkest shadow should be just above the eyelashes and the 
color should be so carefully blended upward and outward that it 
simply disappears with no visible line at the edges. 

The obvious question of course is how far upward and outward 
should the eye shadow he extended. The motion picture make-up 
man can take liberties in order to create a desired character effect. 
But the portrait photographer, like the sculptor and the painter, 
must make form the prime consideration. The orbit or cavity of the 
skull in which the eye is located is a natural frame for the “windows 
of the soul.” The eye shadow should not be extended beyond the 
orbits for portrait purposes. 

If the eyes are large, the shadow can be extended to the edges of 
the orbits because this will accentuate them. If the eyes are small, 
the generous use of shadow makes them appear smaller than they 
actually are. It is like placing a small picture in a large frame; the 


101 








Figure 62 


/ \ 



Figure 61 


picture looks smaller in proportion to the space around it. 

Subjects with deep set eyes require very little eye shadow. If the 
eyes are close together (Figure 61) the shadow should not be ex¬ 
tended to the inside corners. 

If the subject’s eyes are set wide apart (Figure 62) the process 
should be reversed and the shadow applied rather heavily in the 
corners of the eyes next to the nose. 

The final steps in the eye make-up will be described in the order 
in which they are to be performed in the make-up process. 

The Mouth 

Moist rouge is next applied to the lips with a small lining brush. 
(Figure 63.) It is important that the inside of the lips be covered with 
rouge so that if an opportunity occurs to make a smiling portrait, the 
difference between the natural color and the cosmetic will not show. 

Lipstick is one of the few cosmetics that nearly all women use, 
and the idea of having the subject apply the lip make-up may occur 


102 






Figure 63 

Powder, mascara and eyebrow pencil 
applied. 



to the reader. Unquestionably, moist rouge applied with a brush is 
superior to lipstick; and few women outside of the theatrical profes¬ 
sion are skilled in the use of brushes. Another objection to the subject 
taking an active part in the make-up process is that she will either 
proceed according to her daily habits or attempt to execute some 
fantastic character make-up she has seen in a movie magazine. Left 
to her own devices, the average woman does rather a bad job of 
improving on nature. 

Most women manifest special interest in the lip make-up, no 
doubt, because they have made a critical study of their mouths in 
the mirror for many years. Unless a portrait is intended purely for 
artistic purposes, it is a mistake to make any major changes in the lip 
make-up. The subject should be satisfied with every detail as the 
make-up proceeds, because attempts to correct any part of the oily 
base after the powder has been applied will result in a mess that will 
be extremely difficult to clean up. Deviation from the daily make-up 


103 





style of the mouth should be accompanied by a clear explanation of 
the reasons for it. 

A common practice among women is to use lipstick on the center 
of the lips and neglect the corners of the mouth. This is due, in part, 
to carelessness and to lack of knowledge of correct make-up. 

The shape of the subject’s face should be considered in connec¬ 
tion with the make-up of the mouth. The vertical planes of the face 
that is too long* should be broken by horizontal lines. The lip rouge 
should be extended well into the corners of the mouth to provide the 
necessary horizontal plane. (Figure 64.) 

Long, oval faces can be shortened by apparent horizontals. Round 
faces can be given the desired oval by vertical accents. If the subject 
has a round face and a rather large mouth, thin out the lips towards 
the corners in order to shorten the mouth as much as possible. 
(Figure 65.) 

If the subject has a normal or round face, a rather full arch or 
curve can be used on the upper lips. Avoid a pronounced “cupid’s 
bow” in combination with a long face because it accentuates the 
vertical planes. 

In cases where the mouth is decidedly bad, corrective measures 
should start with a careful application of grease paint to cover the 
natural outline of the lips. As far as the camera is concerned, the lip 
rouge must represent the form of the mouth. If the natural lip line 
shows through the make-up, the attempt has failed. The lighting must 
be watched because a cast shadow from strong cross lighting may 
reveal the actual line of the lips. 

Other Corrective Measures 

We have completed the description of all the steps in the applica¬ 
tion of the straight make-up to the point where we are ready to apply 
the powder. Thus far we have been working with foundation cos¬ 
metics having an oily base and a semi-liquid or paste consistency. 
Therefore, if any effort is to be made to reduce certain features and 
accentuate others by the use of Lining colors, it must be done at this 
time so that the Liners can be blended with the grease paint base. 

*The correct proportions of the face will be discussed in the chaper on “Posing.” 


104 





The processes I have described require sufficient time to give the 
make-up man a good opportunity to study the subject’s features and 
to decide what corrective measures, if any, are to be used to complete 
the make-up. 

Lining colors are the medium through which the various correc¬ 
tive effects are achieved. The fundamental principle of light and 
shade is the basis—light comes forward and darkness recedes. To 
accentuate a part of the face, light colors are used and to reduce a 
prominent feature Lining colors darker than the surrounding make¬ 
up tone are applied. 

A receding chin, for example, is built up by high-lighting the 
entire area of the chin with a much lighter shade of color than the 
grease paint base of the make-up. There is, in my opinion, very little 
need of high-lighting in the portrait studio because with careful 
manipulation of lamps the desired results can be obtained by lighting. 
In motion pictures, high-lighting is done with make-up because the 
subject is almost constantly in motion and it is impossible to high¬ 
light such features as the chin at all times with lamps. 

A protruding chin presents a problem in reduction. Lining color 
several shades darker than the grease paint base should be used and 


105 







the edges must be carefully blended into the ground tone. Protruding 
chins are either pointed or rounded. On a round protruding ( bin 
apply shadow to the center and spread it over the entire area; if the 
chin is pointed, apply most of the shadow on the tip of the point. 

The same method should be used for too prominent cheek or jaw 
bones. 

An example of the use of both high-light and shadow is shown in 
Figure 66. The problem is to make a flat nose thinner and more 
prominent. 

The bridge of the nose has been high-lighted with a much lighter 
shade than the ground color, and the sides have been blended with a 
much darker shade. 

Powder 

The powder should match the grease paint foundation. Some¬ 
times a lighter powder is used for very thin faces and a darker shade 
for round faces. 

A patting motion of the powder puff is used to apply the powder, 
and this should he continued until the grease paint will absorb no 
more. The corners of the eyes, mouth, and around the nose are 
difficult to reach with the powder puff, so they should he checked 
carefully to make sure they are thoroughly covered with powder. 
Cover every part of the grease paint foundation from the hair line 
to the base of the neck, around the ears and back of the neck. Make 
sure that the eye shadow and lip rouge are profusely powdered and 


106 







Figure 67. 


An unretouched photograph of the completed make-up. 


107 










if there are wrinkles around the eyes pat over them again drawing the 
wrinkles apart with the tips of the fingers. 

Removing Surplus Powder 

With a soft complexion brush, preferably one made of camel’s 
hair, remove all surplus powder. This should be done with a very 
light stroke of the brush. The make-up should now be perfectly dry 
and velvety smooth in appearance. (Figure 67.) 

After the surplus powder has been removed from the lips, the 
subject should moisten them slightly with the tongue. 

The Eyebrows 

The portrait photographer will find it necessary with the majority 
of subjects to pencil the eyebrows on the natural eyebrow lines. If 
the eyebrows have been plucked, there is no choice. 

The advisability of plucking eyebrows or having it done for a 
portrait is, in my opinion, questionable. If the subject has heavy 
eyebrows, they can be penciled correctly and the excessive hair above 
and below the penciled line removed by retouching. This cannot he 
done successfully with small negatives. 

The shape of the face and the size of the eyes are deciding 
factors in correct eyebrow penciling. The face that is too long needs 
to have the vertical planes interrupted to shorten the face and eye¬ 
brows should he long with a rather flat curve. Avoid a sharp upward 
curve or arch of the eyebrows for long oval faces. The round face 
should not have the eyebrows extended too far at the outer end. 
Subjects with round faces often have eyes set rather far apart, and the 
eyebrows should be penciled from a point directly over the inner 
corner of the eye. If the eyes are too close together, start with the 
eyebrow line away from the corner of the eyes to increase the 
apparent width between the eyes. 

In the normal face, the distance from the eyebrow to the eye 
should equal the height of the eye when it is open. If the subject has 
small eyes, keep the eyebrows low; hut if the eyes are large, allow a 
generous space between the eye and the eyebrows. Think of the eyes 
as a picture and the eyebrows the frame and keep the space between 
in proportion to the size of the picture. 


108 


WRONG 


Figure 68 



RIGHT 


The eyebrow make-up can be applied either with a dermatograpli 
pencil or masque. If a pencil is used, do not make a hard, sharp line 
but draw little short hair lines following the natural shape of the 
eyebrows and accentuating the shape desired (Figure 68.) If masque 
is used, it is applied lightly with a brush. 

The Eyelashes 

Mascara adds the finishing touch to the make-up. It brings out 
the eyes and makes them look larger. Artificial eyelashes are not 
recommended for portraits. They are used in motion picture make-up 
because the camera is so far away for some shots that it is necessary 
to exaggerate the eyelashes to make them register effectively. 

If beaded eyelashes are desired, cosmetic should be used instead 
of masque. Cosmetic must he melted in a small container and applied 
to the lashes with paper liners or orangewood sticks. Repeat the 
application of cosmetic to the tips of the lashes until they acquire the 
desired beaded appearance. The bead should hold about two or three 
lashes. 

The subject may be permitted to apply her own masque if she is 


109 


proficient, but warn her against smearing the make-up around the 
eyes with the mascara brush. 

Masque is obtainable in several colors, but brown and black are 
the only shades needed in the portrait studio. 

Application of Liquid Make-up 

With the face make-up completed, the rubberized apron can be 
removed and the shoulders and arms made-up to harmonize with the 
face. The liquid make-up used for this purpose must match the grease 
paint and powder color used on the face. 

Start the application of liquid make-up at the neck where the face 
make-up stops. Apply with a stroking motion and rub one way only 
until dry. The liquid make-up should cover all of the exposed parts 
of the body that will appear in the picture, including the arms and 
hands. Liquid make-up is easily removed with soap and water. 

If only the head and shoulders appear in a portrait and if the 
subject wears a dress with a high neck line, little, if any, body make¬ 
up is necessary. 

The Hair 

It is not my intention to dwell upon the vagaries of hair dressers, 
but I can report, from experience, that the masterpieces they produce 
are not often suitable for a portrait. Women are largely to blame, of 
course, because when a new style of hairdress is introduced, they 
flock like sheep to try it. It matters not that an Empress Eugenie 
coiffure is totally unsuited to her; if her friends wear it, she simply 
must have it. The result is that a great many women come into the 
studio with one of the most important details of the make-up con¬ 
tributed by a third party who is not only disinterested, but is often, 
for the purpose of a portrait hairdress, downright incompetent. 

The portrait photographer can profitably study the hairdress 
methods used in motion picture productions. It will be noted that 
the fairly long, loose “bob” predominates and that there is a notice¬ 
able absence of tight severe styles. Curls soften the lines of the face 
and, in effect, make a pleasing frame for it. The long oval face can 
be increased in its apparent horizontal dimensions by the simple 
expedient of wearing fuller curls at the sides. Round faced subjects 


no 


should keep the forehead clear and wear the hair soft on top to 
increase the vertical dimensions of the head. On the other hand, it 
may be necessary to bring the hair down over the forehead of the 
subject with a long face and excessively high forehead. Loose curls 
are sometimes worn well forward on the sides of the face to cover 
protruding jaws. Round faced subjects should not wear a wide heavy 
hairdress at or above the horizontal axis of the face. 

Women frequently come to the studio direct from the hairdresser 
with a mass of small tight curls all over the head. The hair should be 
combed out after the make-up has been applied to soften the curls. 
A subject with a round face should never be photographed in a mass 
of tiny, set curls. 

A Modified Make-up 

In the foregoing pages the complete Panchromatic make-up 
process has been described. Although I do not use the make-up as 
described on very young girls and women past middle age, I have 
used a modified form of it with success on young girls having an 
excessive number of freckles and skin blemishes. Instead of grease 
paint, I use a light base of liquid make-up, applying it carefully and 
evenly. A light shade of lip rouge and eye shadow is used, and the 
powder is applied in the usual way. Mascara, if used, should be 
brown instead of black. 

The average woman has no objection to the use of make-up, par¬ 
ticularly if she is convinced that, properly used, it is an aid to better 
portraits. The portrait photographer would, however, be wise to 
confine the use of make-up to women between the ages of approxi¬ 
mately 17 to 35 years. 

Appearance of the Make-up 

The subject, inexperienced in such matters, may show some con¬ 
cern during the make-up process because the orange, red, and brown 
colors of the grease paint, rouge and eye shadow produce a somewhat 
startling effect in the mirror. The explanation that the colors are 
selected for use with color sensitive film; that the appearance of the 
make-up is for the camera and not for the human eye, will set her at 


111 


ease. The assurance that the make-up will not show in the finished 
picture will also help to put her at ease. 

Removal of Make-up 

The appearance of the make-up to the observer suggests another 
important point in connection with its use. Regardless of how flatter¬ 
ing the make-up may be under the studio lights, it is not intended for 
street wear and the subject should not be permitted to leave the studio 
until the make-up is removed. 

Cold cream is used to remove the make-up. Deposit a small 
amount of the cream on the face and thoroughly mix it with the 
grease paint by a circular motion of the finger tips. The cold cream, 
when thoroughly mixed with the grease paint, will dissolve it and the 
make-up can then be removed from the face with disposable tissue. 

It is advisable to wash the face immediately with warm water and 
plenty of soap and rinse with cool water. 

Liquid make-up is easily removed with soap and water. 

Make-up for Color Photography 

There is, as everyone knows, considerable difference of opinion 
as to the relative merits of the various color processes now available. 
I believe it is generally conceded that the results are far from perfect, 
hut most of us expect to see many of the present obstacles removed, 
perhaps in the very near future. The wide interest in color for both 
still and motion pictures has started feverish activity in the labora¬ 
tories of the world and improvement of existing methods or possibly 
some entirely new process is likely to result. Manufacturers of cos¬ 
metics have spent considerable sums of money in experimental work, 
but I am reliably informed that the results of the make-up used in 
the comparatively small number of color pictures produced to date 
has not resulted in an agreement among make-up men as to the best 
methods and materials for color photography. 

Regardless of what the future may bring forth, there are certain 
fundamental principles of make-up which are not likely to change 
when color processes are perfected. Retouching will always be im¬ 
possible in motion pictures, and make-up is, in effect, a process of 
retouching the subject’s face before the picture is made. It may 


112 


always be difficult to retouch colored still photographs in which case 
make-up will be necessary to cover freckles, skin blemishes, and to 
correct structural defects in the subject’s features. 

When make-up for “black and white” photography is applied, the 
make-up man anticipates the appearance of the subject in montone. 
But in color work, the most desirable result is a natural, life-like 
appearance; and this creates a serious problem for the make-up 
artists, particularly if the subject requires corrective work. In “black 
and white” photography, for example, a double chin can be reduced 
by the application of a blue-gray lining color to create the illusion of 
a shadow under the chin instead of a spare tire of fat. In color work, 
the make-up artist is faced with the problem of reducing the same 
chin with colors that closely approximate the subject’s natural com¬ 
plexion. 

Make-up for color photography must necessarily be a modified 
form of street or society make-up in order to harmonize with the 
subject’s costume and surroundings. Foundation colors (grease 
paints, etc.) will probably be lighter in color than those now used 
for Panchromatic film, and they may eventually be prepared in liquid 
form so that a very thin base can be applied. 

It is logical to assume that the manufacturers who now supply 
the cosmetics for “black and white” photography will be prepared 
when color processes are perfected, to supply the proper make-up for 
color photography. 

Pancake Make-up 

The newest cosmetic material used by the motion picture players 
is the Pancake make-up prepared by Max Factor. This preparation 
is a combination face powder and foundation that is applied with a 
sponge over the cleaned surface of the face. No cream base or face 
powder is necessary. It is removed with soap and water. For the 
correct shades of Pancake make-up see the regular Max Factor chart. 
With this new preparation the technique of applying make-up is 
simplified and is rapidly replacing the use of grease paint and face 
powder. For complexions difficult to cover, grease paint make-up is 
still unchallenged. 


113 


CHAPTER SEVEN 


Posing 


What I have to say about posing is addressed to the practical 
photographer who, like myself, is far more interested in results than 
in an extensive knowledge of anatomical terms. 

There is a vast difference between working with professional 
models who can he replaced if their qualifications are unsatisfactory, 
and photographing the general public. Few photographers are for¬ 
tunate enough to have any choice whatsoever of subjects and, there¬ 
fore, must resort to every legitimate means of correcting faults in the 
anatomical structure—at the same time trying to present a pleasing 
psychological portrait. 

Nearly all photographs are made of people who not only know 
nothing about posing, but are far from graceful in their habits of 
walking, standing, or sitting down, as anyone who has developed 
habits of observation can testify. Dancing is now taught in many 
educational institutions, and young people who have enjoyed train¬ 
ing of4his kind are greatly benefited by the experience. Some people 
are naturally graceful in all of their movements; hut even profes¬ 
sional models and experienced actors and actresses require direction. 

Posing is the arrangement of the physical material of the picture 
in accordance with the artist’s interpretation of the laws of compo¬ 
sition. The fundamental principles of composition should be so 


114 


thoroughly established in the photographer’s mind that he will 
instinctively apply them in posing the subject. 

The success of the portrait, however, depends upon its psycho¬ 
logical qualities. I consider the stilted posing of traditional por¬ 
traiture to be unsuitable for modern people, particularly Americans. 
The cataclysmic changes which have taken place since the World War 
have changed the entire psychology and temperament of the people. 
We are living ^faster” today than men have ever lived before and 
the photograph is the most logical portrait medium available to us. 

I advocate a complete break between the modern photographer 
and the traditional style in painting and photography. I expect the 
trend toward realism to result in unretouched photographs in full 
color becoming the most popular portrait medium in the near future. 

The very essence of good posing is to keep the portrait from 
looking “posed.’" Regardless of how willing the subject may be to 
cooperate those of limited experience will find it difficult to hold a 
pose naturally. Instead of placing the subject in the desired position 
and “freezing” them there for the shot, it is best to take a little extra 
time and coach them. After a clear explanation and a few minutes 
rehearsal of the pose let the subject assume the desired position. The 
subject may not be letter perfect but the result will be more natural 
than a pose which has been arrived at by a long process of adjusting 
one limb at a time. 

It is my experience that the better portraits are made toward 
the end of the sitting which, of course, is not surprising. If the subject 
is nervous at first it is utterly useless to waste films. Sometimes the 
tension can be relieved by the pretended exposure of a few films. 
Meanwhile the photographer should divert the attention of the sub¬ 
ject from the camera by conversation on a subject of mutual interest. 

The quickest way to sabotage all chance of a successful portrait 
is for the photographer to appear to be in a hurry. Scrambling around 
the camera and rattling plate holders should he avoided. I find that 
the average subject is more than willing to engage in conversation and 
it is unnecessary to suggest such banal subjects as the weather. 

A modified “Candid Camera” technique often results in an exeel- 


115 


lent shot, especially with children. With lamps and camera in 
readiness the subject can often be caught almost unawares or in a 
natural conversational pose. The child in Figure 69 might at first 
appear to be posed, hut actually this was a spontaneous shot and was 
not posed at all. This method produces the best results for the 
photographer who cultivates the liahit of observing every move as 
the subject walks about or sits down somewhere in the camera room. 
When a good pose is observed the subject should be asked, quietly, 
to remain in the position and the shot should he made without too 
much delay or rearrangement. 

If full figure portraits are to he made that decision should be 
arrived at during the preliminary interview because there should he 
a clear understanding in regard to the costumes the subject will bring 
to the studio. The choice of poses should he made by the photog¬ 
rapher, not by the subject. The decision to make a full figure portrait 
should he based entirely on the type of figure the subject may possess. 
Obviously the rigid standards applied in hiring a professional model 
are out of the question. There are, however, certain essential quali¬ 
fications for the full figure portrait and many subjects will be 
eliminated because the camera adds ten or fifteen pounds to every 
adult figure. Most standing portraits will he women and the Zeigfeld 
type of figure is to be preferred. The tall woman, five feet eight 
inches or over and weighing about one hundred twenty pounds is a 
good subject for the full figure portrait. 

Obesity 

The problem of obesity is a constant worry to photographers. 
Very few subjects are thin enough to cause concern and few are 
too thin to pose directly facing the camera. Most portraits are 
three-quarter views of the body and face or at least the subject is 
turned at a slight angle to or from the camera. Many women, even 
of normal weight, have excess flesh in places where it is a problem to 
dispose of it. There is some hope for improvement through the use 
of better foundation garments. The apparent hulk of the corpulent 
figure can he reduced somewhat by careful management of the lamps, 
keeping them in the contrast region of both the floor plan and 


116 



Figure 69 


117 

















Figure 70 Figure 71 


elevation zones. 

The most effective remedy, however, is to use the three-quarter 
view and to avoid full views of body, face, or limbs. In most cases, 
it is best not to show any more of the body than necessary because 
the corpulent figure appears to defy all attempts to reduce its apparent 
bulk. An example of this type is shown in Figure 70 and Figure 71 
and the reader will note that the three-quarter view is a decided 
improvement over the full face shot. 

The Face 

The subject’s face is the center of interest in every portrait and 
all other portions of the composition must be subordinated in posing 
and lighting. 

The proportions of the face are an important consideration. The 
majority of artists in the past have favored proportions in the ratio 
of three for the vertical to two for the horizontal axis of the face 
although a minority favor a four-three ratio. Raphael employed the 
four-three proportion almost entirely, and this same conception is 
apparent in the later French school represented by Renoir. There 


118 








are four methods of correcting faces that vary from the ideal propor¬ 
tion. These are make-up, costume, lighting, and posing. Obviously, 
we cannot apply all of these corrective measures to the average 
subject, but the most effective method should be used. For example, 
a bald headed man usually appears to have an excessively long face, 
and one of the most effective ways to shorten his face is to have him 
wear a hat. 

A face that is longer in relation to its width than the ideal estab¬ 
lished by artists may appear thin to the eye but posed directly facing 
the camera with rather flat lighting the results are often surprising. 
A face that is too wide in proportion to its length should be posed 
for three-quarter view, with contrasty lighting. 

Composing the Portrait 

There is no satisfactory substitute for the ground glass for com¬ 
posing the portrait. The chief advantage, of course, is that the image 
appears on the glass precisely as it will appear on the negative. 

Some photographers have the ground glass subdivided by etched 
or drawn lines to assist them in visualizing the relation of the image 
to the picture space (Figure 72). 


119 









Figure 74 


Figure 75 


The principles involved in the correct placement of the portrait 
image on the ground glass are few in number and easily understood. 
First, of course, and most important is that when the figure is posed 
for three-quarter views there must always be more space in front of 
the subject on the ground glass than behind. Another fundamental 
principle is that the unusually tall subject should have more space 
above the head than the abnormally short subject. The psychology 
involved is that the amount of space above the head in the finished 
picture tends to suggest the height of the subject. If we look at the 
portrait of a man whom we know to be excessively tall, lack of space 
above the head attracts our attention and accentuates a physical char¬ 
acteristic which may be a source of considerable annoyance to the 
subject. 

There are very few portraits strong enough to occupy the exact 
center of the picture. A possible exception is the symmetrical portrait 
that fills most of the picture space (Figure 73). 

The head of the subject will be above the line A-B (Figure 74) 
in nearly all full figure portraits. The heads of subjects photographed 
in a sitting position (full or three-quarter view) should be approxi¬ 
mately on the line A-B as shown in Figure 75. The eyes should be 


120 















Figure 73 


121 







Figure 76 Figure 77 

The lower camera angle in Figure 76 over-emphasizes the jaw and the length of the neck. 
Notice how matters are corrected by bringing the camera up to eye-level, (Figure 77). 


above the center of the picture space in the large head portraits. 
Camera Height 

The height of the camera in relation to the subject is commonly 
referred to as the “camera angle.” A low camera angle usually means 
that the camera is lower than the subject; at least lower than the head 
and high angle means that the camera is higher than the subject. 
If the subject has normal face and figure the lens should he used at 
or a little below eye level for bust portraits. This is a subject on 
which there is a considerable diversity of opinion hut it really is not 
worth worrying about because of the scarcity of normal faces. As a 
matter of fact it is possible to use the wrong camera angle even on 
the normal face and this is demonstrated in a striking manner by a 
comparison of two photographs made especially to illustrate this 
point. (Figure 76 and Figure 77.) 

The photographer who uses lenses of short focal length must he 
especially careful because that portion of the figure nearest the 
camera is always accentuated. The subject with a weak jaw is 


122 



benefited by a low camera angle but this is disastrous to the subject 
with a protruding jaw. A high camera angle lengthens the nose and 
a low angle shortens it. (Figure 78.) 

The height of the standing figure is accentuated hy a low camera 
angle. By a low angle I mean that the camera should be placed 
practically on the floor for the maximum results. The better way is 
to have a platform or stage on which to pose the standing figure. 
Placing the camera on the floor is awkward because in order to focus 
it is necessary to crawl under the focusing cloth on hands and knees 
like a gopher. This is not recommended for the paunchy photog¬ 
rapher or those who affect a heavy professional manner to impress 
customers. 

Posing the Standing Figure 

A graceful picture of a figure standing without the support of 
furniture or accessories is a real test of the photographer’s ability. 
Art training in posing the nude figure is very helpful in this respect.* 

*A great deal of very helpful information on the subject of posing will be found in William Mor- 
tensen’s book, “The Model: A Book on the Problems of Posing.” Camera Craft Publishing Company, 
$ 3 . 00 . 


123 





The standing figure posed against a plain background is generally 
unsatisfactory as a portrait. One reason for this is the psychological 
suggestion of a fashion photograph because of the plain background. 
In other words the picture requires explanation to distinguish it from 
a fashion plate. The most satisfactory way to do this is to photograph 
the subject in her own home, in the surroundings familiar to her 
family and friends hut unfortunately this is seldom possible. 

The other extreme is the painted curtain or backgrounds com¬ 
posed of pillars and pedestals. These time worn devices can he traced 
hack through three hundred years to what is known as the Grand 
Style of portraiture which reached its peak in the work of Reynolds, 
Gainsborough, Romney and Rubens. (Figure 79.) 

It is unfortunate that the early photographers sought to emulate 
the Grand Style in elaborate posing and painted backgrounds' for 
they earned the disrespect which competent artists have, even today, 
for portrait photographers. Many studios still cling to the traditional 
style, if not with a hideous hack cloth, then by resort to “print in 
backgrounds” which are almost as had. 

I am convinced that the modern portrait photographer can make 
full figure portraits of sound artistic merit hut they cannot he made 
without intelligent effort, and reasonable compensation. The first 
requirement is suitable subjects, with good figures and appropriate 
costumes. 

Contemporary furnishings, selected for pictorial possibilities, will 
he found in the better homes and with the portable lighting equip¬ 
ment now available the home is a logical choice of location for many 
portraits. The chief objection to the studio for full figure portraits 
is that it is expensive and difficult to furnish a new and different 
background and furniture for each portrait. 

If the home is decided upon as a location, the house or apartment 
in which the subject lives and the kind of wearing apparel she owns 
are valuable clues to the character of the subject, her family and 
friends. Careful consideration should he given to all of these matters 
and the subject should be posed in a manner appropriate to the 
surroundings. Whether the poses are to be formal or informal will 


124 



Figure 79 


Peter Paul Rubens 


Courtesy E. A. Seemann 


125 




Figure 81 


depend largely upon the subject’s wardrobe. Some garments are 
suitable only for a formal pose (Figure 80). The modern trend, 
however, is definitely toward the informal, particularly for young 
women (Figure 81). 

The living room is, of course, the most popular room for por¬ 
traiture. A fireplace often makes a good background unless there are 
too many angular lines or other disturbing factors. There should be 
a feeling of repose in the full figure portrait and in most cases the 
subject will he seated rather than standing. Flowing, graceful lines 
are essential. Arms akimbo, or behind the head or holding up a 
leaning figure are disturbing. 

It is possible to compose effective portraits in the studio with 
very few properties. In Figure 82 we have an example of how a 
portrait figure can be balanced by still life or small decorative objects 


126 




Figure 80 


127 




of art. Furniture and “props” should be unobtrusive and they must 
at all times be of secondary interest in a portrait. 

The Head 

For several years prior to the publication of this book, there has 
been an epidemic of large head portraits. This is largely due to the 
introduction of mass production methods in portrait photography 
and to the fact that it is commonly believed that large head portraits 
are easily made. 

As a matter of fact, really good large heads require careful thought 
and skillful posing because when the head is enlarged to become the 
most prominent part of a portrait, the faults in technique and posing 
are magnified. 

The rules of composition must be applied in the large head por¬ 
trait just like in any other picture. The relation of the head to the 
picture space must be considered when the photograph is made so 
that there will be plenty of space in the negative to produce a sound 
composition. The head must be supported—it cannot be left sus¬ 
pended in mid-air. And, to support the head, particularly if it is 
leaning to one side or the other, the shoulders or the arms or the 
hands must be shown. Support can often be suggested by the position 
of the shoulders. If the neck is curved and the head tilted the shoulder 
should be higher on the side toward which the head is turned to 
suggest support. The curve of the neck must be graceful. Angular 
lines in pictures are often useful if the subject is of active, dynamic 
personality. 

Every face has an architecture of its own. There are few really 
normal faces. A perfect nose is seldom seen, and chins are a constant 
problem. Some subjects have prominent noses and weak chins; 
others have small noses and protruding chins. Combinations of this 
kind are difficult because the photographer is often at a loss to know 
whether he should attempt to correct the imperfect chin or the nose, 
because in most cases it is impossible to do both. In the majority of 
cases, it is necessary to compromise, and this is usually accomplished 
by careful selection of the camera angle. The camera angle should he 


128 



Figure 82 


129 






Figure 83 


Figure 84 


Figure 85 


high—at least eye level to avoid emphasis on the prominent chin, and 
this same method should be used for the subject with a short nose. 
A low camera angle is necessary for a receding chin. 

In order to catch the personality of the subject, it is best not to 
pose the head too carefully, because most subjects have a character¬ 
istic tilt or turn of the head which if the subject is at ease will soon 
become evident. 

In all photographs of the head, the eyes are the most important. 
It is surprising how many people have one eye larger than the other, 
and it is a good idea to avoid posing the subject with the larger eye 
near the camera. 

The Hands 

One of the reasons for the “large head” picture is that many of 
the photographers practicing today simply do not know what to do 
with the hands. It is utterly impossible to use the figure in a portrait 
without disposing of the hands in some manner. Instructing the 
subject to “just let the hands fall naturally” usually causes trouble. 
The very wording of this request defeats its purpose because the 
subject becomes conscious of the hands and is placed in the impossible 
position of having to decide what is a natural pose for them. 

Reproductions of portraits by great painters are available for 
study in every first rate library. If art school training can not be 
obtained in the community the photographer will find plenty of 





Figure 86 


131 







Figure 87 


Figure 88 


amateur models among his friends who will gladly permit him to 
experiment with their hands. 

If the hands appear in a picture they must he considered as a 
part of the composition but always subordinated to the face. It is a 
safe rule that if the hands attract undue attention there must be 
something wrong with the posing. Examples of errors that attract 
attention are the “claw,” the “sign” and the twisted fingers of despair 
(Figures 83, 84, 85). 

Posing the hands in the subject’s lap is far easier than placing 
them in the vicinity of the face or neck. Many of the “pretty” poses 
of traditional portraiture are totally unsuited to the modern portrait 
subject, particularly from a psychological point of view (Figure 86). 

The hands should he posed in the same plane as the face because 
if they are nearer to the camera than the face and figure of the 
subject they are likely to he distorted in size. Hands always look 
smaller when the edge of the hand is shown rather than the width 
(Figures 87-88). The “broken wrist” is another error which intro¬ 
duces angular lines into the picture (Figures 89-90). 




Figure 89 Figure 90 

When light colored backgrounds are used protruding fingers 
should not be permitted to stand out in relief against the back¬ 
ground for under these circumstances the hands become entirely too 
prominent. 

It is, of course, apparent to the reader that I have no intention 
of presenting a standardized set of poses. This would reduce the 
subject to a mere mail order catalog; of no practical use to anyone 
except those who go through a regular routine with subject after 
subject until almost every motion can be anticipated. 

Instead, I am going to suggest a course of self instruction for 
the intelligent and ambitious photographer. I believe there is, in 
my suggestion, the basis for an entirely new camera room technique 
with unlimited possibilities. What I have in mind is a modified 
“Candid Camera” method except that a camera not smaller than 4x5 
on a tripod is recommended. 

The photographer instead of learning a long rigmarole of hack¬ 
neyed poses, should study correct posture. He should investigate the 
method of dramatic coaches who instruct actors and actresses in 
poise and grace. 


133 


For example, an actress is taught that the hand should follow the 
line of the arm either in action or repose. Leaning hack on the arm 
for support, the fingers should he pointed backward , not forward, 
so as not to twist the line out of shape at elbow and wrist. 

Watch motion picture actresses move across the screen to a slow 
even tempo and compare the graceful motion with the ridiculous 
jerky motions of the home movie. It is a fundamental principle of 
good posture to carry the hips (or pelvis) well forward, keeping the 
knees limber. 

All of these “tricks of the trade” are a part of the principles of 
body alignment. Once understood and properly applied they open 
an entirely new field for the enterprising photographer. 

Character Studies 

There is always one pose that is best suited to the subject— 
whether it is called a “natural pose” or a characteristic one the 
competent photographer knows when he has discovered it. This may 
require several hours and a lot of films and no photographer can he 
successful if he is niggardly in such matters. 

Figure 91 shows a profile view of a very charming woman. I have 
made many pictures of this subject, hut this is the result of an effort 
to discover the most effective pose. 

The reflex action of the muscles of the eye, which causes everyone 
to wink at regular intervals may cost a film now and then but I would 
rather lose the film than to place the subject on the defensive by the 
admonition to “hold it.” 

The eyes should be looking in the direction the subject is 
facing—looking out of the corner of the eye suggests cupidity and 
furtiveness. The eyes should be wide open and if facing the camera 
the subject should look slightly above the lens. 

Posing Groups 

A group photograph is simply a multiplication of the problem 
involved in posing the single figure. Each figure is a unit of the whole 
and as such must he correctly posed individually and in harmonious 


134 



Figure 91 


135 













Figure 93 


relation to the other members of the group (Figure 92). 

Grouping of figures generally involves the use of a geometrical 
pattern, the triangle being the most popular. The principal thing 
to avoid is heads posed on the same level. The portrait photographer 
often finds it necessary to sacrifice some of the technicalities in order 
to obtain an intimate and characteristic portrait (Figure 93). 

Large bridal groups are examples of subject matter that is difficult 
to compose. Many pictures of this kind are made in homes where 
the photographer has very little choice of surroundings. Stair cases 
and fireplaces have been overdone in bridal portraits for years but 
the costumes and ceremony are too deeply rooted in tradition to yield 
to progress. 


136 






Figure 92 


137 






CHAPTER EIGHT 


Portraits of Women 


Most photographic portraits of women are quite obviously made 
with the intention of flattering and glorifying the subject. The fact 
that the finished pictures may only resemble the subject in a general 
way apparently is of little concern to many photographers so long 
as they can collect money for them. It is a common occurrence for 
people to say, in reference to proofs, “Oh, these are only the proofs— 
the finished picture will not look like these.” 

When the finished photograph is materially different from the 
proof, it is evident that something must have happened to the 
negative and the retoucher is the logical suspect. But, let us examine 
the facts before we form a hasty opinion. As far as I have been able 
to discover, retouchers do as much work as possible on a negative; 
and I have yet to find one who requires urging to do an excessive 
amount of retouching. The problem, in fact, is to control them, for 
they seem to think that the photographer expects them to do wonders 
with negatives and they certainly try to live up to expectations. Some 
photographers apparently believe there are mysteries about retouch¬ 
ing a negative known only to retouchers, and they accept without 
question, negatives, which for the purpose of producing a likeness of 
the subject, have been ruined. The fact that a photographer delib¬ 
erately makes prints from negatives which have been subjected to 
an attack with pencil and knife in the hands of a third party who, 


138 



in the majority of cases, has never seen the subject, places the 
responsibility squarely upon the photographer. If he does his own 
retouching, it is even worse for his action cannot be blamed on an 
incompetent retoucher. Retouchers depend upon photographers for 
employment, and this in itself points to the responsibility of photog¬ 
raphers for failure to control negative retouching. The photographer 
who regards a portrait as an exact likeness of the subject, will find 
it advisable to give the retoucher precise instructions in regard to 
every bit of work on each negative, and to positively forbid any 
unauthorized work. 

I reached the conclusion a long time ago that many of the prac¬ 
tices of portrait photographers could he traced to a psychological 
twist—a subconscious idea that a photograph is a temporary art form 
and a portrait a glorified snapshot. On what other ground can one 
explain the actions of a man who accepts money for something that 
by no stretch of the imagination could be regarded as a characteristic 
likeness of the subject and worthy of permanent preservation? 

The camera has possibilities that are not even approached by 
most portrait photographers. No artist has ever lived or ever will 
who can produce a likeness of his fellow men with the accuracy and 
fidelity of the camera. As a matter of fact, the most important advan¬ 
tage the camera has over pencil and brush is its ability to record 
form, expression, and character with unfailing accuracy. The 
butchery of negatives by third parties who have, in many cases, no 
artistic sense whatsoever, is the prostitution of the camera’s finest 
attribute. It is, of course, too much to expect that the majority of 
photographers will ever produce really fine portraits, because the 
very nature of photography exposes the profession to incompetents 
and mountebanks. Men who could not draw a recognizable sketch of a 
coffee pot can buy a camera and represent themselves to be photog¬ 
raphers and the monstrosities they produce as works of art; i. e., 
“portraits.” The public unfortunately has no protection against these 
jackals because unlike the profession of medicine and law, there are 
no standards of education or ability to be passed before the applicant 
is admitted to practice. 


139 


That the great masters of portrait painting were interested in the 
psychological aspects of portraiture is a matter of common knowl¬ 
edge. The most magnificent portraits ever painted were character 
studies, as well as technical masterpieces. It is in the lack of char¬ 
acterization that the portrait photographer most often fails today, 
and what is more alarming, he shows very little inclination toward 
improvement. 

The photographer cannot, of course, devote all of his time and 
attention to the matter of psychology and characterization because 
these matters are only a part of the making of a fine portrait. Make up, 
costume, posing, and lighting are all important. The successful por¬ 
trait is actually a result of the coordination of all of the factors that 
go into the making of a picture. The photographer who develops the 
greatest skill in coordinating the various steps in the making of a 
photograph will naturally produce a superior portrait. 

Costume 

For example, many studios produce large head prints almost 
exclusively, and thereby eliminate two of the most valuable aids in 
characterization, which are the use of the figure and costumes. Ollier 
photographers deliberately photograph women in the latest fashions 
and then, in a few months, telephone and suggest new pictures 
because the costumes worn in the previous pictures are now “out of 
style!” This is supposed to be good business, and it is even encouraged 
by manufacturers of sensitized photographic materials who suggest 
it as a means of increasing sales. Like many of the catcli-penny tricks 
used in business, it is not actually illegal. Whether it is done because 
of greed, stupidity, or downright dishonesty, the victim is likely to 
suspect the motives of all photographers who suggest the use of 
costume in portraits. 

The simple facts are that costume correctly used as a part of an 
artistic composition will never go out of style (Figure 94). Evidence 
to support this statement exists in every first rate art gallery on earth. 
The costumes worn by the subjects in the most magnificent portraits 
ever painted were contemporary costumes, hut no one would venture 
to criticize the picture because the garments are “out of style.” 


140 



Figure 94 

Changing styles will not take away the charm of this portrait because the hat 
is correctly used as a part of the composition of the picture. 


141 





Figure 94-A 


Figure 94-A shows an attempt to capture something of that 
quality in a photograph. 

The selection of costumes should never he left to the judgment 
of the subject. One of the chief benefits of the preliminary interview 
is in having an understanding with the subject as to what costumes are 
to he used, so that when she arrives at the studio she is actually 
prepared for a portrait. 

Jewelry 

Nearly all women bring jewelry to the studio, hut it is rarely used. 
I decide whether or not a certain piece of jewelry is to he used by a 
very simple test. The subject is permitted to wear it while the camera 
is being focused, and if it attracts my attention on the ground glass 
I have it removed. My theory is that any object that attracts undue 
attention on the ground glass is sure to he a distracting influence in 
the finished picture. I have no objection to a small wedding ring— 
hut all other jewels are regarded as being of questionable importance. 


142 









Figure 95 Figure 96 


Wrist watches, and ear ornaments are definitely out. 

A sense of good taste is invaluable to the photographer of women. 
Questions arise a hundred times a day involving matters of taste. I 
made a photograph especially to illustrate this point (Figure 95). A 
woman may have very beautiful shoulders, but this does not excuse 
pulling an ordinary street dress down in the manner shown, yet a 
national photographic publication recently published a similar photo¬ 
graph as a good example of portraiture. A drape arranged in a 
similar manner is not objectionable, but no civilized woman would 
wear a dress hanging off one shoulder, because of the discomfort if 
for no other reason. An artificial beauty mark may be a huge success 
at a cocktail party, but it ought to he removed for a portrait. It 
would he utterly impossible to even suggest the ramifications of this 
matter of good taste, and some of the problems require tact and 
diplomacy of a high order. 

The selection of costumes for each subject should he based 
entirely upon the kind of portrait to be made. The first question to 
he decided is whether the portrait is to be full figure, three-quarter, 


143 






head and shoulders, or a variety of poses including all three. The 
possibilities of hats, furs, and other accessories should not be over¬ 
looked. Hats can be suggested if the subject has an extremely high 
forehead—furs because they can be used to cover a long neck. 

The influence of Hollywood is a potent factor in fashions. Il is 
not generally known that the high neck line originated in Hollywood, 
not in Paris; and it was a lighting problem that started it. The fact 
that the camera adds weight makes it necessary for motion picture 
actresses to keep their weight down to the extent that the collar hones 
cast ugly shadows which of course cannot he retouched. 

There was no way to solve this problem by lighting, so the studio 
fashion designers made dresses with neck lines high enough to cover 
the collar hones. Women everywhere, influenced by motion pictures, 
accepted the style though, as might be expected, high neck lines are 
as unsuited to some women as the extremely short skirts so popular 
a decade ago were to others. High necks are fine for the woman with 
a long neck and high collar hones, hut they should not he used in 
portraits of women with short, fat necks. Although I have very little 
enthusiasm for drapes in portraiture, I have often devised a very 
satisfactory substitute for a waist, with a piece of black velvet. If a 
low V neck is required for a subject who has not a suitable costume, 
the velvet may save the day (Figure 39). 

Making portraits of a woman who has a well selected wardrobe 
is a pleasure, because the style or design of a costume often suggests 
a suitable pose (Figure 96). 

Colored print dresses photograph beautifully with Panchromatic 
film, but solid colors are to be preferred. Large flower patterns in 
prints tend to draw attention from the subject’s face to her dress. 
Satin is one of my favorite materials, especially in ice-blue, gray, or 
ivory. It is almost axiomatic that white or very light colors will be 
avoided in portraits of large, heavy women. Print dresses, with tiny 
flowers or figures, are very had for large women because the large 
number of small spots emphasizes the bulk of the figure. 

Light colors are nearly always best for youth, and darker tones 
for women past middle age. Women, at all times and everywhere. 


144 


dread old age and their efforts to preserve a youthful appearance 
keeps the smoke pouring from the chimneys of innumerable cosmetic 
factories. The modern woman who has the necessary time and money 
for beauty treatments often appears much younger, to the casual 
observer, than she actually is. Discussion of age, even in the form 
of a suggestion as to suitable costumes, is treading on dangerous 
ground and the utmost tact is required. 

Modern women who have no children often become very fund 
of pets, and the photographer should not overlook an opportunity 
to make an unusual and pleasing portrait (Figure 97). 

Dressing for the Portrait 

A studio designed for portraits of women should have a well 
equipped, warm and comfortable dressing room. Besides a dressing 
table for make-up, a full length mirror should be available—at least 
in the larger studios. Consideration for the ease of mind of the 
subject suggests a door that can be locked and an electric buzzer 
to indicate that the subject is ready for attendants to enter. 

I cannot emphasize too strongly that success with portraits of 
women depends largely upon attention to details. At least half of 
the time required for a portrait in my studio is devoted to costume, 
make-up, and preparation for the picture. Make-up should always 
be applied before putting on the costume selected for the picture. 
And after the make-up and costume are ready, check every detail 
for the small defects that spoil pictures. Exposed shoulder straps, 
loose strands of hair, and hair pins that reflect light are examples. 
In full figure portraits, the subject often forgets to change into the 
shoes that belong with certain costumes. 

Lighting 

I don’t know how old a woman has to be before she stops worrying 
about wrinkles. I photographed a woman on her 100th birthday, and 
she insisted that there were wrinkles in the photograph that she did 
not have on her face. Wrinkles cannot be removed or successfully 
covered with make-up and careful management of lights is necessary. 

Wrinkles are accentuated by contrast lighting and the lamps 
should not be elevated into the contrast zone in height or operated 


145 


in the contrast region of the floor zones. Women are most sensitive 
about wrinkles at middle age when signs of age just begin to appear. 

Young women with regular features and smooth skin texture are 
the photographer’s ideal subjects. There are literally hundreds 
of possible interpretations of the fundamental lighting principles 
described in this book, and the enterprising photographer can make 
portraits of women for years without exhausting the possibilities. 

For example, contrast lighting which as a result of the Hollywood 
influence is used by hundreds of cameramen. Yet, we seldom see 
two photographs that are alike. Contrast lighting can he done from 
above, below, and from either side of the subject and a slight change 
in the position of the lamps produces an entirely different result. 
An endless number of lighting diagrams have been published at 
various times hut they are all variations of the fundamental lighting 
principles which have been reduced to their simplest form in dia¬ 
grams under the subject of “lighting” in this book. As a matter of 
fact, some photographers perfect a technique in a particular kind of 
lighting and all of their portraits are lighted in the same general way 
with occasional unimportant variations. 

Blondes sometimes have such delicate coloring that diffusion may 
have to he resorted to in order to preserve the flesh tones and the fine 
texture of the hair. Heavy spotlights should be diffused or kept far 
enough away to prevent over exposure of the hair, which, being light 
in color, reflects more light than brown hair (Figure 39). 

A spotlight used for highlighting the hair need not he more 
powerful than 250 to 500 watts. Spotlights in the capacity of 1,000 
or 2,000 watts and in motion picture photography even more powerful 
are used, but they are kept at a distance, diffused or operated with 
an Iris diaphragm in order to control the light beam. 

Notes on Posing 

Selecting poses that are suitable for a particular subject requires 
excellent judgment. The photographer who earns his bread and 
butter making portraits of women is not only concerned with the 
character of the subject but with the probable character of her 
family and associates. It is nearly always a mistake to use exotic 


146 


Figure 97 


147 








poses and dramatic lighting if the subject is a member of a conserva¬ 
tive family. A true psychological portrait should he closely related 
to the way a woman appears in everyday life, and to her family and 
friends. Women from the best families conform to the customs of 
the community, particularly in wearing apparel and personal appear¬ 
ance. Make-up, costume, posing, and lighting must, therefore, he 
coordinated so that the final result will he a portrait of a particular 
woman and not a mere mannequin. 

Portraits of Beautiful Women 

One of the silliest notions I have ever heard is that the beautiful 
woman is easy to photograph. The facts are that the average attrac¬ 
tive woman is comparatively easy to photograph because with 
make-up, good lighting, and suitable costumes, she can he trans¬ 
formed, Cinderella like, into an effective portrait subject. But the 
beautiful woman (of whom there are very few) presents an entirely 
different problem. She needs no artificial glamour and little, if any, 
make-up. It is unnecessary for anyone to glorify her—hut merely to 
do justice to her beauty. This requires all of the ability of the finest 
portrait photographers. 

The Man Behind the Camera 

American women dominate men by feminine methods familiar 
to everyone. Whether this is good or had for the country is something 
experts in such matters will have to decide, hut such a situation is 
intolerable in the portrait studio. The photographer must control 
every step in the making of a portrait. He must believe in his own 
ability even in the face of criticism, for there are people in this 
world who cannot be satisfied regardless of how good a portrait may 
he. He must have the courage to believe in the product of his own 
hands, and to back his judgment at all costs. 

If he knows his business and believes in himself, he will have 
an assurance of manner that goes a long way toward winning the 
confidence of the public. 

Personality and appearance are extremely important to the pro¬ 
fessional man who specializes in portraits of women. It should not 
be necessary to suggest frequent baths, fresh linen, and shaving at 


148 


least once every clay, but it is surprising how many photographers 
offend in such matters. The photographer should dress well on all 
occasions for the sake of his reputation in the community. 

It should he remembered that word of mouth advertising is the 
most expensive in the world, because it takes a much longer time to 
reach a given number of people than newspapers or other advertising 
media. Word of mouth advertising can be either good or had, and 
incidentally, women are supposed to have a monopoly on this par¬ 
ticular form of advertising. 

Portrait photography is hard work, and good health is a requisite. 
Women admire strong healthy men, and the value of regular exercise 
can not be overestimated. I do not argue that the successful photog¬ 
rapher should have the physique of a lifeguard—hut I think it 
would help. 


149 


CHAPTER NINE 


Portraits of Men 


A friend of mine, as an amateur photographer, cherished an 
ambition for many years to own a studio and to make portraits of 
men exclusively. He expected, by specializing in portraits of men, 
to escape all dealings with women and to make character photographs 
with little or no retouching. It wasn’t long until he found, to his 
amazement, that a woman was involved in almost every transaction. 
In fact, my friend reports that it is a frequent occurrence for a 
woman to handle every detail except actually sitting for the portrait. 

The majority of men after they have had a portrait made will 
not have another one until forced to do so. Actors are an exception— 
but few men have the colossal vanity that distinguishes an actor from 
the ordinary man. Events in the lives of prominent men are fre¬ 
quently illustrated in publications by photographs made so long ago 
that not even the man’s intimate friends can recognize him. 

The influence of women suggests the idea that it is good business 
for the studio to sell portraits of men through advertising directed 
to women. 

The Preliminary Interview 

It is difficult to arrange advance interviews with men, hut the 
results are well worth the effort. The stock excuse will he that he is 
too busy but if the truth could be known, he is simply afraid to admit 
his portrait is that important. Years of careful observation have 


150 





convinced me that the average business man ought to complete his 
office work in two hours a day or less. But decisions on the most 
trivial matters are sidetracked and callers are told to return the next 
day or next week simply because the man won’t make up his mind. 
The photographer is selling something that men seldom buy of their 
own volition, so considerable sales strategy is needed. If the portrait 
is wanted by mother, wife or sweetheart, enlist her aid. The American 
business man may he a roaring lion in the market place, but he jumps 
through the burning hoop with alacrity when his wife cracks the 
whip. 

If a woman is interested in a man’s portrait, her presence upon the 
occasion of the advance interview is a decided advantage because it 
gives the photographer an opportunity to win her confidence. She 
is sure to have the last word in the selection of proofs, and she will 
suggest more people who should be presented with a photograph 
than a man could ever think of. 

The primary purpose of the interview is to impress upon the 
subject that a portrait is more than just a picture. The photographer 
must have control of the situation at all times and the advance inter¬ 
view is the logical time and place to start. Too often, men of affairs 
try to shift the burden of responsibility for the portrait onto the 
photographer by treating the entire transaction as a nuisance. Accus¬ 
tomed to pushing representatives of the press around, he can he 
expected to gallop into the studio at his own convenience and hark, 
“Let’s get this over with.” Two clicks of the shutter, and he reaches 
for his hat saying, “You’ve got enough.” The closing lines of this 
routine are, “You pick out a good one and fix it up—you know what 
I ought to have.” 

Obviously, the man has not been photographed—but only a 
stuffed shirt with the label “Vice-President” on it. It would be far 
better to flatly refuse to make a portrait except under conditions 
which afford a reasonable opportunity of success. I have, on two 
occasions, declined to photograph one of the owners of a corporation 
that is among the largest of its kind in the world. Had I made the 
pictures under the conditions prevailing at the time (on one occasion 


151 




he was suffering from a heavy cold) I would have received a few 
paltry dollars, for something that would he viewed by hundreds of 
wealthy and prominent people to my everlasting regret. As the matter 
stands today, I have my self-respect, which is worth more than money 
and the respect of a man who has added to my reputation as a photog¬ 
rapher by his approval of my methods. 

A successful portrait requires the cooperation of the subject in 
spirit as well as in body. If a man is reluctant about spending his 
time or making an honest effort to cooperate, then it is best to he 
frank and appeal to him by logical reasoning. Here is an example: 
“Mr. Jones, you own a steel mill and your success is proof of a sound 
knowledge of the steel business. You know more about steel than 
I could learn if I spent the remainder of my life studying it. On the 
other hand, I have devoted the best years of my life to portrait 
photography, and my portraits are evidence of my qualifications. 

“If I buy steel from you, your reputation is the best possible 
guarantee of quality. But, I must buy from you at your price and 
according to your terms and conditions of sale, which presumably net 
you a profit—the ultimate aim of all business. The successful conclu¬ 
sion of the transaction depends upon confidence between buyer and 
seller. In order to produce a portrait that will be satisfactory to both 
of us, I must have your confidence in my ability to specify the condi¬ 
tions under which a successful portrait can be made, and you should 
be willing to spend the time necessary to do it.” 

Psychology in Characterization 

If a woman is attractive, her portrait is justified by a faithful 
reproduction of her beauty. But a man is noted in life and after he 
has gone for achievement and his portrait must take into account the 
activities of his life. Women are admired for themselves and men for 
what they do. 

A man’s environment is sure to leave its marks upon him psycho¬ 
logically as well as physically, and it is not for the photographer 
to judge whether or not he has devoted his energies to laudable 
enterprises. 

I know a man who is invariably referred to in the newspapers as 


152 



a “millionaire sportsman.” Rumor lias it that the fellow squandered 
his inheritance, that he has never done an honest day’s work in his 
life, and swears he never shall. But he is an accomplished entertainer, 
wears clothes well, and always finds someone willing to finance him. 
I photographed him as a “playboy” in appropriate poses and cos¬ 
tumes—any other course would have made us both ridiculous. 

Costumes, backgrounds, furniture, and lighting are valuable aids 
in portraits of men. Sometimes the surroundings offer the most 
effective means of establishing the psychology of the portrait (Fig¬ 
ure 98). The tycoons of modern business are good examples of 
portrait subjects whose characters are inseparably bound up with 
achievement. Starting in most cases, as poor boys, they have spent 
their entire lives accumulating money. Vast wealth is a source of 
endless wonder; and the newspapers naively print stories of the rich 
man’s town and country houses, yachts, and racing stables, until these 
possessions become symbols of the man’s wealth and power. The fact 
that the man accumulates so many things that he cannot possibly find 


153 



time to use is in itself an index to his character. Such a man is a 
veritable Colossus of such psychological stature as to almost preclude 
a studio portrait at all. Perhaps a portrait at his desk in a banking 
establishment or in front of a baronial fireplace with an enormous 
dog at his feet would convey the idea of possession. Many readers 
will argue that the man’s character could be portrayed by a head and 
shoulder picture and that the surroundings I have suggested are too 
obvious. I heartily disagree because the desire to possess so dominates 
the man’s life that it could scarcely be indicated too strongly in a 
portrait. 

Edward Steichen is a master of psychological portraits of men. 
Featured for many years in 64 Vanity Fair” (since combined with 
Vogue), his portraits were a magnificent contribution to contempo¬ 
rary photography. 

One of the cardinal principles of salesmanship as outlined in 
every manual on the subject is to make diligent inquiry in regard 
to the hobbies of the prospect in order to meet him on the common 
ground of mutual interest. Photographic publications have been 
advocating this idea for years, hut I want to warn the reader that 
unless he has a real and sincere interest in the particular hobby, there 
is no use to attempt a discussion of it. When a total stranger presumes 
upon my time to discuss something that he knows very little about, 
I am instantly aware of it and it arouses me to fury. 

Last Fall, I made a portrait of a Vice-President of an international 
advertising agency. One of my scouts reported that he was as “cold 
as a fish” and predicted that there was a total absence of human emo¬ 
tions. When the man came into the camera room, he confided that 
he had suffered all his life from self-consciousness and that he had 
been unable for this reason to obtain a satisfactory photograph. 
Instead of trying to force the conversation, I decided that he was doing 
fine and I simply listened. He soon volunteered the information that 
he was leaving in a few days for a vacation and that he would arrive 
at his boyhood home about 44 hog-killing time.” This was a subject 
of real interest to me, and it reminded me of many experiences of 
my youth that I could describe with enthusiasm. The result was a 


154 


Figure 99 


155 












pleasant half hour during which photographs were never again 
mentioned, but during the conversation I was making excellent 
negatives in which the subject showed no trace of self-consciousness. 

Lighting 

The lighting of a man’s picture should emphasize his physical 
strength as well as his character. Men have stronger, larger features 
than women, and lighting should he masculine with heavier shadows 
than it is advisable to use on the comparatively delicate feminine 
features. 

Nearly all portraits of men will he made with the lights ranging 
from normal into the contrast region of the elevation and floor plan 
zones. 

Low key lighting with a short scale of tones ranging from gray to 
black is especially appropriate for men of mature years. There is a 
certain dignity in this method of lighting that cannot be obtained with 
the more contrasty effects. 

A good example of this type of lighting is shown in Figure 99. 
The subject was dressed in a dark suit and the chair in which he was 
seated is deep red. At first glance it may appear that this is a long 
scale print, because the subject is wearing a white collar and the 
tones extend into deep black. But the white collar can he ignored 
for it is a single isolated note widely separated from the actual tone 
scale which ranges from gray to black. 

High key lighting is very effective for portraits of young men. 
A white shirt, open at the neck, is youthful; and it is informal enough 
to appeal to high school and college hoys (Figure 100). 

Posing 

The young man photographed in a white shirt open at the neck, 
should be posed in an informal way to harmonize with the lighting 
and costume. This treatment, however, would be totally unsuitable 
for the portrait of a business man. Although there is a general 
tendency toward the informal in nearly all portraits of men, dignity 
and good taste must not he disregarded. One of the reasons for the 
informal pose is that the average man is somewhat ill at ease before 


156 



Figure 100 


157 






the camera, and fussing about him to perfect every fold and wrinkle 
only adds to his nervousness. 

When a man steps in front of the camera, he is never quite sure 
of his appearance; but a woman always knows when she looks her 
best. A haircut, bath, shave and shoe shine are about the extent of a 
man’s preparation for business and social contacts, and he has no 
idea what to do about dressing for a photograph. The average man 
is glad to have suggestions and advice in regard to his appearance, and 
he is reassured by a definite statement from the photographer that 
his clothing is in good order. 

When a man who shows signs of self-consciousness enters the 
camera room, the chair I want him to occupy has previously been 
placed in position. I merely indicate the chair and for a few moments 
purposely turn my attention to camera or lamp. There is a possibibity 
that the subject, under the impression that the equipment is not quite 
ready, will seat himself in a natural position and relax. If, however, 
he fails to do so, he should be asked to stand for a moment on the 
pretext that the chair is not quite in the desired position. If he fails 
the second time to sit in a natural position, I have found it best to 
suggest a natural pose by sitting down myself in another chair and 
asking him to assume a similar position in his chair. 

The heavy man should not be posed in front of a light background 
because the bulk of the figure is emphasized. A chair which permits 
the fat man to support his arms while leaning slightly forward is one 
of the most effective ways to avoid emphasis of the prominent 
stomach (Figure 101). Fat men should never be permitted to lean 
hack in the chair because this exaggerates obesity. 

Bald heads are a rather frequent problem, and the usual method 
is to use a lieadscreen to reduce the reflected light from the top of 
the head. This, however, does not provide an effective remedy for 
all subjects because the bald head often makes the man’s face look 
too long. The excessive vertical dimension can, however, be reduced 
by having the subject wear a hat (Figure 102). 

A common form of lieadscreen is a metal rig covered with a thin 
black chiffon or similar material and mounted on a pedestal which 


158 



Figure 101 


159 









Figure 102 

can be adjusted for height and to any desired angle. A lieadscreen 
should merely soften the light and it should not be covered with an 
opaque material because this is likely to cast a heavy shadow. 

If a woman’s ears are too prominent, she generally uses a style of 
hairdress that will cover the deformity, hut this remedy is not avail¬ 
able to men, at least not in the more civilized parts of the country. 
The offending ear can either be toned down by placing a lieadscreen 
between the light source and subject or by posing at an angle to the 
camera which will conceal one ear entirely and prevent the other 
from appearing in relief against the background (Figure 103). 

Cigarettes, pipes, and other accessories used in conjunction with 
dramatic lighting effects afford opportunities for many unusual 
pictures. Subjects for photographs of this kind should have strong 
features and care must he exercised in the posing of the hands so 
that they will not he closer to the camera than the face of the 
subject (Figure 104). 

Make-Up 

Good flesh tones and skin textures add strength and realism to a 


160 


Figure 103 



man’s portrait. A few minutes under studio lamps is usually sufficient 
to bring a warm, moist glow to the skin and no make-up is necessary. 
The desired effect can, however, he obtained with the application of 
a few drops of olive oil, evenly distributed over the face with the 
palm of the hand. Some of the skin lotions are also satisfactory for 
this purpose. 

Subjects with heavy beards should shave, if possible, just before 
the photographs are made. If the subject has been shaved in a barber 
shop, remove excess powder if it is noticeable. Some barbers have a 
habit of dusting their customers with a large powder brush, liberally 
loaded with powder. 

Retouching 

It is not my purpose to discuss how much or how little retouching 
should be done on a man’s portrait, but to suggest that in most cases 
the negative should not he retouched at all. Figure 105 is a print 
made from an unretouclied negative, and Figure 106 is a print made 
after the same negative was retouched by a retoucher who was 
instructed to retouch the negative as for a family portrait studio. 


161 




Figure 105 

Print from an unretouched negative. 
Note the lines of expression around the 
eyes and mouth which make this a 
natural and characteristic portrait. 


Figure 106 

Print from the same negative after re¬ 
touching. The retoucher was instructed 
to retouch the negative as he would for 
a family portrait studio. 


I hasten to explain, for the benefit of those who might misinterpret 
my suggestion, that I have no prejudice whatsoever against retouching 
negatives or those who practice the so-called “art” of retouching. I 
avail myself of the services of an expert retoucher and if it is neces¬ 
sary to retouch a negative at all, the rule is that nothing is to he done 
that will change the character or appearance of the subject. 

The psychological character of the average man is usually indi¬ 
cated by lines that time and circumstance have etched too deeply for 
the retoucher’s pencil to successfully remove. That is the reason that 
excessive retouching is more noticeable in the portrait of a man than 
in the portrait of a woman. 

Those who deliberately try to flatter subjects by various retouch¬ 
ing methods would be wise to consider the modern trend toward 
realism. The extensive use of “candid camera” photography by news¬ 
papers and magazines everywhere is ample evidence of public accept¬ 
ance of the unretouched photograph, particularly of men. 


162 





Figure 104 


163 







CHAPTER TEN 


Portraits of Children 


Child portraiture is one of the most highly specialized branches 
of photography. Comparatively few photographers, amateur or 
professional, are temperamentally fitted to manage children so the 
better portraits are made by those who specialize in that field. 

The opportunity is almost unlimited for men or women with the 
necessary qualifications, which are a thorough knowledge of child 
psychology and endless patience. There is a constant demand for 
good portraits of children and literally hundreds of communities 
have no competent child photographers. I have always considered 
this an ideal field for the advanced amateur who is interested in 
portrait photography. The necessary equipment is not elaborate or 
costly, and for those who make photography a hobby it offers an 
opportunity to obtain more than enough income to pay the overhead. 
Some professional photographers may take exception to this sug¬ 
gestion; but if they are operating their studios properly, they have 
no reason to worry about competition—amateur or professional. 

Equipment 

The Graflex is, in my opinion, pre-eminent among cameras for 
child portraits. I use magazines with a capacity of 18 cut films instead 
of the usual 12 to avoid interruption of the sitting for changing 
magazines. Film holders are not only too slow, but they are a nuisance 


164 





to handle unless an assistant is available to do nothing but focus the 
camera and change holders between exposures. I have used both 
4x5 and 4, and I would not buy any size smaller than a 4x5 

camera. I have used lenses as fast as f2.5, but f4.5 is fast enough. 
My lens is equipped with a compound shutter and I consider this 
feature invaluable. The disturbing noise of the focal plane shutter 
is eliminated and a long cable release can be used. There is no reason 
that I know of for using a soft focus lens for portraits of children. 
Even with a sharp lens, very little if any retouching is necessary. 

After much experimental work, I learned that the most satisfac¬ 
tory seat for young children is a bench. I built one about the size of 
a piano bench, finished it in ivory, and covered it with a tan colored 
piano bench pad (Figure 107). A bench forces the child to sit up 
straight because there is no back to lean against. It should he high 
enough so that young children cannot touch the floor with their feet. 
With feet off the floor and no back to lean against, much wriggling 
and squirming is eliminated; and there is no chair back to show in 
the picture. 

A piece of furniture called a “baby holder” can be purchased 
from photographic supply houses, hut I cannot recommend them. 
No one ever brought a baby to my studio that would fit the gadget. 


165 



With tiny babies, I prefer to use a large overstuffed chair and prop 
the child up with pillows covered with a large sheet of raw silk 
(Figure 108). 

Elaborate equipment is unnecessary for the average portrait 
with children it is a handicap. Children tire very quickly and 
excessive moving of furniture and lamps will cause them to lose 
interest in the proceedings. The routine work of placing furniture, 
lighting equipment, and camera in position should be done before 
the child enters the room so that the subject can be given undivided 
attention. 

Babies, especially at the age when they are just able to sit up 
alone, must he photographed as quickly as possible. If enough satis¬ 
factory shots are not obtained in the first fifteen minutes, try again 
hut never on the same day. 

When a baby is teething, it sometimes drools at the mouth. One 
remedy for this is to place a small pinch of sugar on the tongue. 

The Advance Interview 

The photographer of children will soon find that some mothers 
are almost as much of a problem as their offspring. The advance 
interview is, as a matter of fact, more necessary for the mother than 
for the child. If the child is quite young, the mother should he 
cautioned against coaching or even telling the child that a photo¬ 
graph is to he made. This warning is based on the very fundamentals 
of child psychology. Every doctor and nurse knows that the first 
emotion mankind experiences on this vale of tears is fear. As babies 
grow older they lose, for example, the fear of falling sensations; but 
all children and most adults fear that which is mysterious or not 
clearly understood. A child that has never been photographed, if 
informed of the impending event, may build up a lot of imaginary 
fears and enter the studio in apprehension of strange rites involving 
at least the removal of a tooth. Entering a studio that is dark and 
cold is bad enough, and if the photographer appears in a voluminous 
smock, long whiskers and a Windsor tie, like a character out of a 
story hook, the child probably will never completely recover from 
the experience. 


166 


Figure 108 



If the mother tells her child about the appointment at all, in 
advance, she should be instructed to describe the sitting as a game 
during which many interesting and attractive toys can he expected 
to appear. 

It should be definitely understood that the mother will not, in 
any manner whatsoever, give the child advance instructions in regard 
to its behavior before the camera. 

Mothers of little girls are inclined to overdo the costume and 
hair. I have known a mother to insist upon decorating a child’s hair 
with a ribbon and then, when proofs were shown, want the ribbon 
removed. It always develops, of course, that the child never wears a 
hair ribbon at home and obviously it looks incongruous in the 
photograph. 

It is advisable to discourage unusual styles of hair dressing and 
costumes that the subject seldom wears. A garment that has been 
laundered several times is always preferable to a new one. Small 
boys usually look uncomfortable in stiff, starched shirts and collars. 


167 


Soft materials in light colors are always best because they harmonize 
with light backgrounds and modern high key lighting. 

Lighting 

I use two 1500 watt lamps in the studio in addition to the back¬ 
ground lights and exposures range from one twenty-fifth of a second 
at f4.5 to one-tenth of a second at f8. with Panchromatic film.* There 
is no way to control the motion of babies under one year of age, so 
the maximum shutter speed is advisable. 

There is a psychological aspect to he considered in the selection 
of backgrounds in portraiture. Light tones suggest youth and gaiety, 
which of course is the reason for the universal choice of light colors 
for the costumes of young children. Dark, somber backgrounds are 
too heavy, and the effect is too contrasty for child portraiture. I use 
a white background exclusively for children. If high key effects are 
wanted, I project enough light on the background to obtain the 
desired effect. If delicate gray background tones are needed, the 
background lights are eliminated, leaving only the light reflected 
from the studio walls to the white background. By control of the 
reflected light, various shades of gray background tones can he 
produced. 

Simplicity is the keynote of lighting for all portraits of children. 
Heavy shadows and dramatic lightings are definitely out. If the 
temptation to use spotlights cannot he resisted, they should be put 
under lock and key. An exception could be made, for example, in 
the case of a young girl with an abundance of curly hair. 

Forty-five degree lighting is the most satisfactory for children 
because it combines good delineation of form with a variety of effects 
obtainable with few adjustments in the position of the lamps. 

Both amateur and professional photographers want interesting 
expressions and a variety of poses. The professional knows from 
experience that the more proofs submitted of different poses, the 
larger the order will be. A successful sitting should result in several 
negatives facing in each direction. Parents usually want more than 

Eastman Portrait Panchromatic. The use of Super-Sensitive Panchromatic film would permit 
more rapid exposure, but I prefer the Portrait Panchromatic, especially for subjects with blue eyes. 


168 




2 Cs \ 

<3 



Figure 109 Figure 110 


one pose, and if two or more prints are mounted in panels or frames, 
they should face each other—not both in the same direction. 

An efficient way to make a variety of poses is to arrange camera, 
lights, and furniture before the subject enters the room. (Figure 109.) 
In the floor plan shown it will be noted that the bench upon which the 
child is seated is placed at an angle of about 35 degrees in relation 
to the position of the camera; and that the main light source is on the 
right. After making the desired number of exposures in the first 
position, the angle of the bench is reversed and the main light moved 
to the left of the camera (Figure 110). Changing the position of the 
main light in each case necessitates the moving of the secondary 
illumination unit. Camera and background remain in the same posi¬ 
tion and if the lighting units are equipped with rubber tired casters, 
the change can be made without noise or confusion. 

Lighting should tend from normal toward flat, rather than into 
the contrast region of the forty-five degree elevation and floor plan 


169 

















zones. Exposures should be full because the flesh tones will print 
dark and unpleasant from under-exposed negatives. Lighting for 
children should be delicate with soft highlights, and harsh contrasty 
lighting should be avoided at all costs. 

Posing 

Strictly speaking, children under about seven or eight years of 
age cannot be posed, but by suggestion and guidance the elementary 
principles of portrait composition can be observed. Children are 
naturally graceful in their movements, but in response to a direct 
command to pose in a particular way they almost invariably look 
awkward. 

Some children become badly frightened if a stranger lays hands 
upon them, so it is a good rule not to touch a child unless it is abso¬ 
lutely necessary. One way to suggest a pose is for the photographer 
himself to assume the desired position and ask the child if he can 
do likewise. Most children have sufficient competitive spirit to want 
to demonstrate their ability, and they are pleased at an opportunity 
to cooperate with the photographer. 

Psychology in the Camera Room 

Mothers should not he in the camera room unless the subject is 
a baby, in which case she can do no harm, and may even render 
valuable assistance. Every child presents a different psychological 
problem and in addition to his ability to analyze the character of his 
little subjects, the photographer must have the ingenuity to cope 
with every situation that may arise. 

An interesting example is the case of a five-year-old hoy whom 
I photographed recently. Circumstances over which neither the 
parents nor myself had control prevented an advance interview and 
the little fellow was rushed into the studio by his mother and a nurse. 
While the nurse combed the boy’s hair, I had a short talk with the 
mother and she readily agreed to my suggestion that she and the nurse 
remain in the reception room. But as she left the camera room, she 
turned and pointed a warning forefinger at the child and said, “Now 
remember what I told you about smiling!” The result was the grimace 
of a cigar store wooden Indian. I sat down for a moment and said, 


170 



“Peter, I have a whole chest of toys that I would like to show you, 
but your mother wants some photographs, so let us make two or 
three pictures just to please her and then we can forget all about the 
camera. This suggestion was greeted with enthusiasm, and I went 
through a rather elaborate pantomime of making two or three pic¬ 
tures. After this psychological preparation, the rest was easy. With 
the cable release in one hand, I displayed a variety of toys, walking 
about in the direction I wanted the subject to face and carrying on 
a conversation during the entire proceeding. When the proofs were 
submitted, the mother selected 8 poses and ordered 40 prints. 

While the child is in the proper mood and is responding favor¬ 
ably, I make one negative after another as rapidly as the plates can 
be changed. I make as many negatives as I consider necessary to 
produce a characteristic portrait and I always have plenty of films 
at hand when I start. 

Toys should be selected with care and entertainment should never 
be exciting or boisterous. Animated toys and those in which there 


171 



is an element of mystery are best. Plain boxes out of which toy 
animals or comic figures emerge, unexpectedly, are good because they 
arouse the child’s natural curiosity and hold the interest in anticipa¬ 
tion of further surprises. One of the best toys I have found is a 
cloth monkey which can he worn on the hand (Figure 111). Many 
antics can be performed by the manipulation of the fingers inside 
of the toy. 

Although toys may insure the success of many portraits, the real 
test of the photographer’s ability to judge character comes when he 
decides which children should not be entertained with toys. The 
spoiled, disobedient child will insist upon taking over the entire toy 
department and he may flatly refuse to have anything to do wilh 
portraits after a toy appears on the scene. Children of this type can 
generally be distinguished by the habit of putting their fingers on 
everything in the studio that is not securely nailed down. 

One of the most charming little girls that I have ever photographed 
simply could not be kept in front of the camera long enough to make 
exposures. She bounced off the bench and out of the room—laughing 
and playing until everyone was completely worn out. I decided that 
the child found too many things of interest in the studio and sug¬ 
gested to her mother that we probably could photograph her without 
difficulty at home. An appointment was made and subsequent events 
proved that my reasoning was correct. At home, where all of the 
surroundings were familiar, she found nothing to distract attention 
and the result was a portrait that was a joy to the mother and a prize 
winner in a photographic competition (Figure 112). 

It is a common fault of adults to fondle children and to make 
extravagant comments on their appearance and behavior. Children 
appreciate this habit far less than we think, hut they grow to expect 
it. If there is reason to believe that a child is spoiled and unruly, it 
is sometimes advisable to deliberately ignore him when he enters 
the camera room. His curiosity is aroused by the apparent indiffer¬ 
ence of the photographer and his interest is centered upon whatever 
activity is taking place in the studio at the moment. When the photog¬ 
rapher quietly turns to him and asks him to perform some small task 


172 


Figure 112 


173 









he is so pleased that he has attracted attention that he obeys without 
hesitation. Thus a spirit of cooperation and understanding is estab¬ 
lished by a method that takes the recalcitrant child completely by 
surprise. 

Some of the most difficult child subjects come from the homes 
of those whom the famous authority on etiquette, Emily Post, calls 
our “best people.” Through the indifference of servants and the 
failure of the mother to perform the natural duties of a parent, 
children from such homes too often escape the salutary benefits of 
a liberal application of the rod. It is good policy to avoid undue 
familiarity with children, even those who appear to be a hit shy 
at first. The photographer should not be deceived by an angelic 
countenance—its owner may attack the piano with edged tools the 
moment his back is turned. 


174 


CHAPTER ELEVEN 


Hollywood Portraits 


One simply has to see Hollywood to understand the psychology 
and simian antics of its inhabitants. What in other cities would be 
considered fantastic and incredible is in the movie capital merely 
commonplace. The outstanding characteristic of the Hollywood 
portrait is contrast. The better examples of this type of photograph 
have a dynamic, explosive quality from which the observer has little, 
if any, chance to escape. 

In addition to their attention-getting qualities, Hollywood por¬ 
traits are supposed to illustrate glamour, sophistication, sex-appeal 
and in fact they run the entire gamut of human emotions. Their 
popularity is partly due to the movie magazines which in recent 
years have literally flooded the country. Photographs of movie stars 
are shipped by the ton to every newspaper or magazine willing to 
publish them. 

As far as the technique is concerned, if the equipment is available, 
there is no reason that I know of why the photographer in Pensacola, 
Peoria, or Pocatello cannot make “Hollywood” portraits. The ques- 


175 


tion, however, and this every photographer will have to settle for 
himself, is whether or not this type of portrait is suitable for his 
customers. The Hollywood boys have no problems of dignity or good 
taste to worry about—they are selling a product of uniform quality 
in most cases bearing the familiar label “Glamour.” 

The essential characteristics of the Hollywood portrait are con¬ 
trasty lighting, exotic posing, and super-size prints. Costumes range 
from bathing suits weighing a couple of ounces to elaborate, historical 
creations costing thousands of dollars. 

Make-up is, of course, applied by masters of the craft—this per¬ 
mitting close-up pictures. Intimate poses are favored and curves are 
always emphasized over straight lines. Heads much larger than life 
size are popular, and 30"x40" prints are common. To photograph 
a young woman seated in normal position in a chair is almost unheard 
of, and there is no limit to the gymnastics used in efforts to get 
unusual poses, particularly of the intimate and reclining type (Figure 
113). A stepladder is an indispensable item of equipment in making 
pictures of this kind, because of the unusual camera angles. 

Some of the most unusual pictures are obtained by the simple 
expedient of twisting the negative in the enlarger, or mounting the 
print in an unexpected manner (Figures 114-115). 

Lighting 

In the chapter on lighting, I promised to discuss certain features 
of lighting in connection with Hollywood portraits. Many of the 
best-known Hollywood photographers deliberately work with unbal¬ 
anced lights, and there is often a total absence of consistency in the 
direction of the light source. The lighting in most pictures is 
extremely contrasty with the lamps in the contrast region in height 
and floor plan position. The most important exception is a system 
(which enjoys considerable popularity in Hollywood at the present 
time) where the main light source is placed almost directly over and 
slightly in front of the camera. Ordinarily, this would result in flat 
lighting, hut the secret of success with this system is to elevate the 


176 




Figure 113 


light into the contrast zone to the extent that the nose of the subject 
casts a shadow almost directly downward toward the mouth. This, 
of course, is merely one interpretation of dramatic lighting, and for 
certain subject types it is very effective (Figure 116). It should 
never be used with subjects having high cheekbones or thin faces. 

Those who wish to make Hollywood portraits should confine their 
efforts to young women. It should be remembered that most portraits 
in Hollywood are posed by selected subjects who are by actual test 
ideal photographic subjects. Some of the features which are the most 
effective in photographs of this type are large eyes, long eyelashes, 


177 




Figure 114. Posed as a horizontal portrait. 


full and well shaped lips, and what is most important, youth. 

The photographer must exercise good judgment in the selection 
of subjects, because the public cannot be expected to do so. A woman 
came into my studio recently with a page torn from a movie magazine, 
showing a young and well-known motion picture actress in a sinuous, 
reclining position, costumed in a form-revealing drape of velvet. This 
woman, who weighed at least 225 pounds, admitted to my receptionist 
that she was 47 years of age. It should not be necessary to add that I 
refused to even discuss such a picture with her, but every photog¬ 
rapher is sure to encounter such preposterous suggestions. 









Figure 115. Figure 114 mounted as a vertical print to obtain 
unusual effect. 


179 




Figure 116 


180 





CHAPTER TWELVE 


Outdoor Portraits 


That there is a difference between a snapshot and a portrait most 
photographers will agree. The question might logically be raised as 
to whether a good, unretouched snapshot made when the subject was 
at ease was not a better portrait than a studio portrait made under 
less favorable conditions. As a matter of fact, a great many people 
depart from this world of sorrows leaving behind no portrait other 
than the production of a box camera. But this memento may be as 
highly prized as the work of a portrait painter by those who knew 
the subject. Unquestionably, the average person appears more 
natural in a snapshot, because they do not take snapshots seriously 
enough to pose for them. 

The better examples of outdoor portraits are equal in craftsman¬ 
ship to the studio picture—the only important difference being in 
lighting and surroundings. 

The surroundings and backgrounds generally make it possible 
to introduce pictorial composition in outdoor portraits. Trees and 
shrubbery are sometimes utilized for interesting shadow patterns. 
Disturbing influences should be kept out of the background, espe¬ 
cially objects of an angular nature, or those having lines leading out 
of the picture. Many full figure portraits are made outdoors, and 


181 


costumes should always be informal and in harmony with the sur¬ 
roundings. Posing should be informal, but technically correct. As 
implied by the term “portrait,” the subject will be in repose rather 
than in action. 

Outdoor Lighting 

The best light for an outdoor portrait is indirect, or reflected light. 
A light haze, or what in California is called “high fog” is excellent. 
With the modern ultra rapid films, instantaneous exposures can be 
made on the north side of buildings with open sky overhead. Direct 
sunlight is too harsh, because it throws the eyes into pockets of deep 
shadow. Daylight is at its best before 10:00 in the morning and after 
4:00 in the evening. Some of the most beautiful lighting effects I have 
ever seen were obtained before 7:00 in the morning and after 6:00 
in the evening. 

Everyone is familiar with the improvement in motion pictures; 
much improvement, of course, can be traced to better meters and the 
use of Panchromatic film, but lighting technique has shown enormous 
improvement. Cameramen have, as a result of careful study, learned 
to produce a wide variety of effects with ordinary sunlight. Skill and 
knowledge in the use of filters has also resulted in the improvement 
of pictures. The importance of the right kind of light for a certain 
effect sometimes keeps a motion picture company waiting on location 
for days and even weeks for the proper effect. The possibilities of 
the early morning and late evening light can scarcely he over¬ 
estimated. 

Nearly all of the effects described in the chapter in this book on 
“Lighting” can he produced in a modified form by sunlight if the 
subject is posed at various times during the day in the same relation 
to the sun as the subject shown in the diagrams in this book. Any 
desired kind of flat lighting, 45° lighting, or contrast lighting can be 
produced by choosing the time of day when the sun is in the approxi¬ 
mate position as the main light source in the studio. 

The power of direct sunlight can be utilized for an occasional 
character study, and the open sky makes an effective background. 
When the open sky is wanted for a background, the subject should 


182 



Figure 117 


be posed on the brow of a hill or elevation, or the same effect can be 
obtained by shooting upward from a low camera angle. A K1 or K2 
filter with the exposure kept at a minimum will result in a dark sky 
which is an effective background for white shirts, dresses, and light 
colored sports attire. 

A great variety of new garden furniture has been designed in 
recent years, and the modern homes with gardens and patios make 
beautiful backgrounds for outdoor portraits (Figure 117). 

Two useful accessories for those who do considerable outdoor 
portraiture are the head screen and reflector. The head screen should 
be covered with a light cheese cloth so that it is transparent, because 
its purpose is to reduce excessive contrast; and it should never be 
covered with a material heavy enough to make it appear opaque 


183 





Figure 118 


when in use (Figure 118). Suitable reflectors can be made of thin 
plywood covered with metal foil or painted with aluminum paint 
(Figure 119). Both accessories should be light in weight as well as 
portable, because they will nearly always be used at some distance 
from the studio. 

Backlighting in outdoor portraiture produces some very effective 
pictures. This is sometimes called “shooting into the sun”, and a 
good sunshade must be used to protect the lens from the direct light 
of the sun and also from stray shafts of reflected light from sidewalks 
and buildings. Many backlighted shots are spoiled by the under 
exposure of the subject’s features. If an exposure meter is used, it 
is advisable to hold the instrument close enough to the subject’s face 
to obtain an accurate reading on both the highlight and shadow sides. 
If the contrast is extreme, the exposure should he sufficient to provide 
good detail in the shadows and development should be done by the 


184 






low accelerator method described in Chapter 4 to prevent the block¬ 
ing up of the highlights. 

There is in California a school of photographers who have organ¬ 
ized what they call the “f64 group.” The name implies the constant 
use of stop f64, but actually they use any stop desired, provided the 
result is a photograph in which every detail is sharply in focus. They 
accomplish their objectives entirely by photographic methods, and 
retouching of negatives is definitely taboo. Prints are glossy, but not 
ferrotyped, and are usually mounted on a card mount with a semi¬ 
glossy surface. The majority of the photographs produced by this 
group are made by daylight, and in my opinion they are the finest 
examples of long scale negative making to be found anywhere today. 

A few magnificent examples of photographic portraiture have 
been produced by members of this group, but as far as I know there 


185 










is no photographer living today who can say that he has ever made 
even a meager livelihood out of such portraits. The difficulty centers 
about the stark realism of the print produced by this method, and 
very few people, especially women, are willing to accept a photograph 
in which every skin blemish, wrinkle, and pore is rendered as sharply 
as if done with an etching tool. 

The exponents of the f64 method are apparently more interested 
in the technical problems of pure photography than in the psycho¬ 
logical aspects of portraiture, and in such practical matters as costume 
and make-up. 

That a portrait produced by pure photography is more “honest” 
than those in which retouching and projection control has been used 
is a question that I do not propose to argue here. My policy is to 
produce portraits by photographic methods, and I use every available 
means of reducing retouching to a minimum. I attempt to make 
portraits that are an exact likeness of the subject, and I consider 
make-up, costume, and artificial lighting to he legitimate aids in 
attaining this objective. My point of view in such matters is well 
illustrated by the story of the man who asked his friend whether 
Grant or Lee was the better General, to which his friend replied, 
“I don’t know who was the best General, hut they paid off on Grant.” 


186 


CHAPTER THIRTEEN 


Home Portraiture 


There are two separate and distinct kinds of home portraiture 
of which the amateur snapshot is the most common, and the profes¬ 
sional variety made for profit is the other. The opportunities in this 
field are almost unlimited and why it has been neglected by profes¬ 
sional photographers is a mystery to me. 

With Photo-Flood lamps and Panchromatic film, fast shutter 
speeds can be used with the light obtainable from an ordinary house 
circuit. Photo-Flood lamps deliver an actinic value approximately 
ten times greater than an ordinary lamp with the same current con¬ 
sumption. The life of these lamps is approximately two hours, but 
a great many photographs can be made with one set of lamps by 
burning them only during the actual exposure. This is sometimes 
accomplished by placing ordinary lamps in the same group or bank 
of lights for focusing, and switching on the photo-floods, which are 
of course controlled by a separate switch, when the shot is made. 
Another method is to use a voltage reducing rheostat which dissipates 
the excessive voltage of the line into heat during the focusing process 
after which the full power of the 110-120 volt line can be switched on. 

A fine selection of lighting equipment is now available for use 
with Photo-Flood lamps and the prices are within the reach of nearly 
everyone. 


187 


Home Portraiture for Professional Photographers 

The studio owner in a prosperous community should build up a 
good business in home portraits with very little increase in overhead 
expense. Almost anyone experienced in selling portraits will agree 
that getting people into the studio is the most difficult step in making 
a sale. This I think is due to the fact that in many communities almost 
everyone in town has been photographed with the same studio furni¬ 
ture and in front of the same background. It is, of course, econom¬ 
ically impossible to provide a different background and furnishings 
for every subject, but if one photographer in the community could 
do this he would gain a decided advantage over his competitors. This, 
in effect, is what can be done by the portrait photographer who spe¬ 
cializes in home portraits. 

There are prosperous people in every community who can afford 
to buy portraits and who can he sold if they are offered something 
different. Most of them live in artistic and luxurious homes with 
ideal pictorial surroundings for portraits. Many modern homes and 
apartments are decorated in a manner which reflect the personality 
and psychological character of various members of the family. 
Although families with children and pets are the better prospects, 
others who own beautiful homes should not be overlooked. Pride of 
possession is a powerful motive and if the photographer has enough 
imagination and initiative to show the prospect how the architectural 
features of the home can be utilized he will, in most cases, be given 
an opportunity to demonstrate his ability. Negotiations with a family 
of established financial and social standing in the community should 
be conducted in a manner that will insure a substantial order for the 
photographer and the ultimate satisfaction of the customer. 

If a stranger enters the studio it is good business to secure a 
definite order and a deposit. But an effort to obtain a commitment 
for a certain number of prints before home portraits are made is 
likely to result in an order that is not at all commensurate with the 
wealth of the customer. A deposit may be collected if desired, but 
the important thing is to have an appointment arranged when the 
entire family are present and to make sure that enough time will be 


188 




allowed to permit the making of a generous number of negatives. 

Every member of the family should be photographed regardless 
of the original plan. They should be photographed singly, in groups, 
with pets, and in as many different rooms as possible. The garden, 
patio or lawn should not be overlooked especially if interesting out¬ 
door furniture is available. 

Needless to say, a plentiful supply of films should be taken along 
for a home portrait appointment. A definite appointment to show 
proofs should he arranged before leaving the home. I have found 
that when young people of high school age or older appear in por¬ 
traits, it is a good idea to have them present when proofs are sub¬ 
mitted because their enthusiasm generally means a larger order. 

Most studios have sufficient portable equipment for home por¬ 
traiture, hut for the benefit of those who contemplate the purchase of 
an outfit, a few suggestions will be offered. A 5x7 view camera with 
three lenses is an excellent choice. A view camera has the advantage 
of bellows adjustment for everything from wide angle to long focus 
lenses and the rising front is very necessary for interior and archi¬ 
tectural shots. There should be a wide angle lens for the smaller 
rooms, one intermediate and a portrait lens of not more than 10 inch 
focal length. 

For those who specialize in home portraits of children, a Graflex 
equipped with an f4.5 lens is recommended. Most home portrait 
appointments require the use of an automobile to carry equipment 
and the Graflex adds very little weight so I always take both cameras. 

The exposure meter should be carried at all times because 
unexpected conditions are most likely to arise when making portraits 
in homes. Using artificial light of known value is routine work, hut 
moving out into a garden or in the shade of trees and shrubbery in 
daylight of questionable value is quite another matter. 

Home Portraiture for the Amateur 

Most professional photographers start as amateurs and at first 
probably have no intention of making photographs for compensation. 

It has been my observation that real progress in photography 
dates from the time the amateur starts to do all of his own laboratory 


189 


work. As long as someone else develops the negatives and makes 
the prints, errors in composition, lighting, and exposure seem to 
continue. But when the intelligent, industrious man endeavors to 
find out why he failed, improvement can be expected. 

The darkroom, film development, and print making have received 
more attention than any photographic subjects that I know of and I 
do not propose to add to the vast literature that already exists. I 
have long suspected that the mechanics of photography is the basis 
of the interest of many photographers. This is particularly true of 
those who spend most of their time experimenting with developers, 
papers, and semi-photographic processes. I use sensitized materials 
prepared by a concern that has a corps of scientists constantly trying, 
with unlimited resources of money and materials, to improve their 
products and methods of using them. I am convinced that it is good 
judgment on my part to use these materials in accordance with the 
instructions of the manufacturer. Any competent authority will 
agree that the materials now on the market have possibilities of 
negative and print quality which few photographers even approach. 

When I enter a darkroom and find the shelves cluttered with 
bottles containing intensifiers and reducers, I know that the photog¬ 
rapher has not availed himself of the facilities for producing clean, 
correctly exposed and developed negatives of good printing quality. 
It should not be necessary to sell anyone the idea of time and tem¬ 
perature tank development and there is no excuse for the under or 
over development of negatives. 

With the exposure meters on the market today, and with films 
of known speed, there is no excuse for incorrect exposure. The 
beginner will waste enough film in a very short time to pay for the 
best meter on the market. 

Under exposure and under development should not be confused 
with over exposure and over development. No amount of develop¬ 
ment and no method of intensification will make a good negative 
out of one that is badly under exposed, because there is no possible 
way to get detail where it does not exist in the negative as a result 
of exposure. 


190 


Reduction and intensification are only makeshift remedies and 
they should only be used when films are not properly developed. 

The photographer who decides, early in his career, to work only 
with good negatives and to retake every shot that does not result in a 
satisfactory negative, will be more than repaid for any trouble this 
policy may entail. 

Equipment 

If the amateur has an ambition to turn professional, equipment 
should be selected with this idea in mind. I can report, from expe¬ 
rience, that an easy way to lose money fast is to buy photographic 
equipment and then start replacing it. 

The serious amateur who is interested in photography as a hobby 
is the logical owner and user of a miniature camera. If the fact that 
the miniature camera is a precision instrument is kept constantly 
in mind, the amateur who has a well-equipped laboratory ought to 
produce home portraits of good quality. 

I think the one piece of equipment that is most difficult to get 
amateurs to use is a tripod. A miniature camera, even on a light 
weight tripod looks ridiculous but superior results are well worth all 
the trouble involved in carrying and using a tripod. It should be 
remembered that the head of a subject may make an image several 
inches in diameter on film of the size commonly used in portrait 
photography, but the same size may make an image very little larger 
than the head of a pin on the miniature negative. This means that 
the slightest movement of the miniature camera is likely to result in 
a “fuzzy” negative whereas the same amount of movement might be 
unnoticed on the larger films. 

Those who wish to use artificial light can purchase suitable light¬ 
ing equipment for home portraits for a few dollars. This matter of 
lighting equipment can he carried to any extreme that the ambition 
of the photographer dictates and a further discussion here on the 
subject would he a needless repetition of the material contained in 
an earlier chapter. 


191 



Making the Home Portrait 

The word “portrait” implies something better than the so-called 
“snapshot” and the elementary principles of lighting and posing 
should be utilized. With the fast films now available, instantaneous 
exposures can be made indoors provided the subject is close enough 
to an open window. The reason that the window must be open is to 
prevent the loss of light value due to the refraction and absorption 
of the light rays by the window glass. A reflector should be used on 
the shadow side and if a suitable screen is not available, a sheet 
draped over the backs of a couple of chairs will do (Figure 120). 
With the lower portion of the window covered with a piece of cheese 
cloth, the upper portion becomes a 45° light source, comparable to 
a studio skylight. Figure 121 was made in this manner. 

This basic portrait lighting can be improved upon by those who 
have two or more inexpensive lighting units, because of the possi¬ 
bility of control. 

From these simple beginnings, the amateur can work into the 
more elaborate portrait lightings. There is no limit to what can he 


192 











Figure 121 


193 





Figure 122 


Figure 123 


accomplished by a man who has sufficient imagination and the deter¬ 
mination necessary to carry out his ideas. The amateur has many 
advantages, one of which is time in which to plan and execute pictures 
of his family and friends that few professional photographers could 
equal. A good example of this is the portrait of one of my daughters, 
made on Christmas Eve in front of the family fireplace (Figure 122). 
This home portrait made when I was an amateur would be difficult 
for a professional photographer to duplicate because a child so young 
is always conscious of a stranger in the home. 

Some of the most pleasing home portraits can be obtained by 
“candid camera” methods. Children are ideal subjects and one of 
the most successful amateurs I know is a kindergarten teacher. She 
carries a camera constantly and finally the children cease to pay any 
attention to the instrument. A tripod is impractical for portraits 
made under these circumstances, so exposures must be fast enough 


194 



so that the camera can be held in the hands. One-fiftieth of a second 
exposure, or even faster, is preferable. Home portraits made by 
following children at play are necessarily informal, and getting a 
picture that tells a story is far more important than the rules of 
composition (Figure 123). 

Most children, especially if they have pets, have a daily routine 
of activities which, with a little ingenuity, can be photographed. In 
this example, the large Persian cat was in the habit of watching the 
baby eat breakfast every morning. Lights and camera were set up 
and the photographer merely waited for something to happen. 

In conclusion, I should like to emphasize the importance of 
patience. The most elaborate equipment and a profound knowledge 
of the technical side of portrait photography are useless without it. 
Impatience is communicated to the subject instantly, and when the 
photographer “blows up,” the camera should be placed on the shelf 
for the day. If I were asked to name the most important psychological 
attribute for success as a portrait photographer, I would, without 
hesitation, say patience. 


195 


CHAPTER FOURTEEN 


Portrait Photography As a Business 


Many of the professional photographers of the future will, no 
doubt, he recruited from the ranks of present day amateurs. The 
amateur photographer who contemplates opening a portrait studio 
should familiarize himself with the problems which confront the 
modern photographer before he starts in business. 

Portrait photography has been going through a trying period on 
account of the economic condition of the country. In the large cities 
competition is bitter and the business is more or less divided into two 
classifications; first, established conservative studios with a clientele 
of regular customers who are willing to pay a fairly substantial price 
for portraits and, second, the chain or cut rate studios operating by 
mass sale and production methods. 

Photographers today, in common with all other business men, 
have one big problem and that is, to get enough business to make a 
profit. In the past the average photographer built up a reputation 
upon the basis of his work and by one customer telling another about 
his studio. The average studio owner was a notoriously poor adver¬ 
tiser, if in fact, he did any advertising at all. Word of mouth adver¬ 
tising is the finest kind of publicity, but it is painfully slow and under 
present economic conditions it will not produce enough results to 
support a large studio in a competitive market. 


196 


There is a vast difference between a one man enterprise and a 
commercial studio where the work is done by employees. The photog¬ 
rapher who builds a business upon the basis of his personal ability 
will find it very difficult to satisfy old customers, when he opens a 
larger studio and hires help to make the portraits. His customers like 
his style and technique, and it is utterly impossible to duplicate it 
with hired help. The reason for this is obvious. Regardless of how 
good a photographer may be, he cannot duplicate the results obtained 
by another photographer working with the same equipment. 

The amateur who intends to become a portrait photographer 
should decide as early in his career as possible, whether or not he is 
going to build a business on his name or operate under a firm name 
as a commercial enterprise. 

The amateur with limited capital can often use a suitable resi¬ 
dence building as a combination home and studio until his reputation 
becomes firmly established. 

The photographer who opens a new studio in a good business 
district will require a substantial amount of capital to cover the high 
overhead until the business becomes established. 

A good location is not sufficient. Ways and means of getting cus¬ 
tomers into the studio must be provided. Advertising in some form 
is the only way to do it, and the medium to be used depends to a 
very great extent on the type of studio. When one customer tells 
another about the studio, that is advertising, but as I have pointed 
out before, it is too slow for modern business. 

Some studios do considerable speculative business. There are 
endless ramifications but in general the method is to ask permission 
to photograph society women and others who are more or less in the 
news. The photographs are made, ostensibly for publication, and 
the photographer’s remuneration and profit depends upon making 
a sale from the proofs shown. This method of obtaining business is 
of questionable value because in many communities prominent 
people are hounded by photographers until they cannot be induced 
to enter a studio. Many have had the experience of sitting for a 


197 


portrait, supposedly for publication, only to be brow-beaten and 
shamed into buying photographs which in many cases were entirely 
unsatisfactory. 

Following up wedding and birth announcements is one of the 
most prolific sources of business and the competition in this field is 
intense. Most of this business is obtained by telephone or by personal 
calls by salesmen. Telephone and personal calls are an expensive 
medium of advertising if salesmen and saleswomen are paid on a 
salary basis. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to secure good sales 
people on a straight commission basis. I advertised for both men and 
women a few months ago in one of the largest metropolitan news¬ 
papers in America. The advertisements all stated plainly that the 
positions offered were on straight commission. The results were 
appalling. The only applicants were riff-raff in spite of the fact that 
there are millions of unemployed in the country. 

To be effective advertising must be consistent. The fact that a 
single advertisement does not produce traceable results is not suffi¬ 
cient reason to stop advertising. If after a thorough trial, a particular 
advertising medium fails to produce results, try another. The wise 
advertiser does not imitate others—originality is the basis of success 
in most advertising campaigns. For example, a photographer should 
not hesitate to use outdoor advertising simply because the other pho¬ 
tographers in town don’t use it. Immense, beautifully painted Out¬ 
door Advertising Bulletins would attract wide attention because other 
photographers are not using them. 

Advertising should be directed at a definite market. There should 
be a particular copy appeal—not just a hit and miss one. If the 
studio specializes in quality work at higher than average prices, the 
advertising should emphasize quality. 

Of all advertising appeals price is the most powerful. There are 
two reasons for this: First of course, is the economic turmoil of the 
country, and, second, the fact that photographs are a luxury in the 
average home. 

Competition for the “luxury” fund of the average family today 


198 


is terrific. The photographer must battle the powerful advertising 
and selling campaigns of automobile and radio manufacturers for 
his share. He is at a disadvantage too, because he demands cash, 
whereas there are dozens of things that the average person wants 
more than photographs and most of them can be bought on easy 
credit terms. 

The photographers should form the strongest possible trade asso¬ 
ciation and use national advertising to make the public “portrait 
conscious.” It would cost considerable money, but that is the only 
way I know of that photographers can get their share of the “luxury 
money” available. The individual photographer can’t do the job, it 
is far too big, and it is obviously a cooperative problem. 


199 







































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